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Triumvirate

The term '''''triumvirate''''' (from Latin language|Latin, "of three men") is commonly used to describe a political regime dominated by three powerful individuals. The arrangement can be formal or informal, and though the three are usually equal on paper, in reality this is rarely the case. The term can also be used to describe a state with three different military leaders who all claim to be the sole leader of the state.

Roman Triumvirates

- Twice in the late pre-Principate period of the Roman republic, political power shifted from the formal magistrates and Roman Senate|Senate to three ambitious men, who thus constituted a transitional government, known as ''triumviratus'', each time only to break up again in civil war:
- What modern scholars call the First Triumvirate was an informal political alliance of two rival generals, Julius Caesar and Pompey the Great representing the popular viz. senatorial party, with the extremely wealthy businessman Marcus Licinius Crassus. This fell apart after the death of Crassus, and the two other triumvirs fought a civil war, during which Pompey was killed and Caesar established his sole rule as perpetual dictator.
- The Second Triumvirate was a formal governing body, consisting of Augustus|Octavian and Mark Antony, the rivals for real power, and third wheel Marcus Aemilius Lepidus (triumvir)|Marcus Aemilius Lepidus. Lepidus was sidelined early on in the triumvirate, and Antony was eliminated in a civil war, leaving Octavian as the sole leader.
- In various municipalities, also under the Principate, the chief magistracy was a college of three, styled ''triumviri''.

Chinese Triumvirates

One of the most notable triumvirates formed in the history of China was by the Han Dynasty (202 BC – 220 AD) statesmen Huo Guang (d. 68 BC), Jin Midi (d. 86 BC), and Shangguan Jie, following the death of Emperor Wu of Han (r. 141–87 BC) and the installation of the Emperor Zhao of Han|child emperor Zhao. Despite the Three Excellencies—including the Chancellor of China|Chancellor, Imperial Secretary, and irregularly the Grand Commandant—representing the most senior ministerial positions of state, this triumvirate was supported by the economic technocrat and Imperial Secretary Sang Hongyang (d. 80 BC), their political lackey. The acting Chancellor Tian Qianqiu was also easily swayed by the decisions of the triumvirate.Loewe (1986), 178. The Three Excellencies existed in Western Han (202 BC – 9 AD) as the Chancellor, Imperial Secretary, and Grand Commandant, but the Chancellor was viewed as senior to the Imperial Secretary while the post of Grand Commandant was vacant for most of the dynasty. After Emperor Guangwu of Han|Emperor Guangwu established the Eastern Han (25–220 AD), the Grand Commandant was made a permanent official while the Minister over the Masses replaced the Chancellor and the Minister of Works replaced the Imperial Secretary. Unlike the three high officials in Western Han when the Chancellor was senior to all, these new three senior officials had equal censorial and advisory powers. When a young or weak-minded emperor ascended to the throne, these Three Excellencies could dominate the affairs of state. There were also other types of triumvirates during the Eastern Han; for example, at the onset of the reign of Emperor Ling of Han (r. 168–189), the General-in-Chief Dou Wu (d. 168), the Grand Tutor Chen Fan (d. 168), and another prominent statesman Hu Guang (91–172) formed a triumvirate nominally in charge of the Nine Ministers|Privy Secretariat, when in fact it was a regent triumvirate overseeing the affairs of state and Emperor Ling.Beck (1986), 319.

Modern Triumvirates

The title was revived a few times for (short-lived) three-headed political 'magistratures' in post-feudal times. When the French revolutionaries turned to several Roman Magistrature names for their new institutions, the three-headed collective Head of State was named French Consulate|''Consulat'', a term in use for two-headed magistratures since Antiquity; furthermore it included a "First Consul" who was not an equal, but the de facto solo head of state and government- a tyrannical position Napoleon I of France|Napoleon Bonaparte chose to convert openly into the First French Empire. Prior to Napoleon and during the Terror Robespierre, Louis de Saint-Just, and Couthon, as members of the governing Committee of Public Safety, were purported by some to have formed an unofficial triumvirate. Although officially all members of the committee shared equal power the three men's friendship and close ideological base led their detractors to declaim them as 'triumvirs' which was used against them in the coup of 9 Thermidor Eric Schmidt, CEO of Google has referred to himself, along with founders Larry Page and Sergey Brin as part of a triumvirate, stating, "This triumvirate has made an informal deal to stick together for at least 20 years".

Modern Italy

In the Roman Republic (19th century)|Roman Republic (1849), the title of two sets of three joint chiefs of state in the year 1849:
- 29 March - 1 July 1849: Carlo Armellini (b. 1777 - d. 1863), Giuseppe Mazzini (b. 1805 - d. 1872) & ''Conte'' Aurelio Saffi (b. 1819 - d. 1890)
- 1 July till 4 July 1849: Aurelio Saliceti (again), Alessandro Calandrelli (b. 1805 - d. 1888) & Livio Mariani (no dates available)

Modern Greece

- After the downfall of the first King of Greece, the Bavarian Otto of Greece|Otto on 23 October 1862, and Dimitrios Voulgaris' unsuccessful term (23 October 1862 - 30 January 1863) as president of the Provisional Government, a Triumvirate (30 January-30 October 1863) was established consisting of the same Dimitrios Voulgaris, the renowned Admiral Konstantinos Kanaris (b. 1790 - d. 1877) and Benizelos Rouphos (b. 1795 - d. 1868), which acted as a regency until the arrival of the newly styled next monarch, the first "King of the Hellenes", George I of Greece|George I.
- A triumvirate was set up during the First World War in September 1916, to head the "Provisional Government of Movement of National Defence|National Defence" in Thessaloniki. It consisted of the popular liberal statesman Eleftherios Venizelos, General Panagiotis Danglis and Admiral Pavlos Koundouriotis. This "Triumvirate of National Defence" functioned as a collective head of state, although effective control was in Venizelos' hands. With the abdication of King Constantine I of Greece|Constantine I in June 1917 and the reunification of the country under Venizelos, the triumvirate was dissolved. The Triandria municipality in Thessaloniki is named after this triumvirate.
- Another ''de facto'' triumvirate existed during the early years of the Greek military junta of 1967-1974, where the junta's three main leaders were Colonel Georgios Papadopoulos, Brigadier Stylianos Pattakos and Colonel Nikolaos Makarezos. With the increasing predominance of Papadopoulos from 1970 on, this triumvirate ceased to function.
- The Greek People's Liberation Army, active during the Axis Occupation of Greece, had a triadic leadership structure, consisting of the ''kapetánios'' ("captain", the unit's leader), the ''stratiotikós'' (the military specialist, usually a former Hellenic Army|Army officer) and the ''politikós'' (the political representative of the National Liberation Front (Greece)|National Liberation Front).

New World

- Venezuela: according to the Venezuela (first republic)|Federal Constitution of 1811 the executive power was vested in "three individuals" (1810-1811).
- Argentina had two triumvirates:
    - the First Triumvirate (Argentina)|First Triumvirate which took power in 1811,
    - the Second Triumvirate (Argentina)|Second Triumvirate which took power in 1812.
- The United Provinces of New Granada, now present day Colombia, and Panama, were headed by two triumvirates in the period known as the ''Foolish Fatherland''.
    - Interim Triumvirate, October 5, 1814 - November 23, 1814
    - * José María del Castillo y Rada
    - * José Joaquín Camacho
    - * José Fernández Madrid
    - Triumvirate of the United Provinces of New Granada, November 23, 1814- October 1815
    - * Custodio García Rovira
    - ** Antonio Villavicencio, Replaced Rovira during his second term as he could not preside over.
    - * José Manuel Restrepo, was never sworn in.
    - ** José Miguel Pey de Andrade, replaced Restrepo as he declined. July 28, 1815
    - * Manuel Rodríguez Torices
- In the present Dominican Republic (eastern part of formerly Spanish Hispaniola island), twice (in a long list of styles, basically military junta|juntas, some also of three) :
    - 29 May 1866 - 22 August 1866 - 1st Triumvirate (in rebellion from 1 May 1866):
    - *Pedro Antonio Pimentel Chamorro (b. 1830 - d. 1874; formerly one of three 'Generals-in-Chief' 23 January 1865 - 24 January 1865)
    - *Gregorio Luperón (b. 1839 - d. 1897) PA
    - *Federico de Jesús García
    - 26 September 1963 - 25 April 1965 - 2nd Triumvirate :
    - *Emilio de los Santos (b. 1903 - to 22 December 1963) (chairman; from 29 December 1963 succeeded by Donald Joseph Reid Cabral, b. 1923, UCN, new chairman)
    - *Manuel Enrique Tavares Espaillat (b. 1929)
    - *Ramón Tapia Espinal (b. 1926 - d. 2002)
- State of New York: "three men in a room" (currently Sheldon Silver, David Paterson, and Joseph Bruno)

Other 'Triumvirates'

The word has been used as a term of convenience, though not an official title, for other groups of three in a similar position :
- ''Ottoman Triumvirate'' is another name for the Ottoman Interregnums
- Great Triumvirate (19th Century American Politics - Henry Clay, Daniel Webster, and John C. Calhoun)
- Rada Trzech|Polish and Czechoslovak Council of Three|Czechoslovak Council of Three (World War II resistance governments)
- Paraguayan Triumvirate
- Triumvirate and Stan
- The Triumvirate plus One
- Tuscan Triumvirate (Middle Ages Italian Poets - Dante Alighieri|Dante, Giovanni Bocaccio|Bocaccio, and Petrarch)
- Asian Triumvirate
- Slovenian triumvirate (Borut Pahor, Gregor Golobič, Katarina Kresal)

In fiction

- Commonwealth Triumvirate in Andromeda (TV series)|Andromeda describes the leading arrangement of the All Systems Commonwealth. Controlled by 3 triumvirs, Tri-Jema, Tri-Lorn and Tri-Ortiz, who was replaced by her sister, Tri-Camille
- Triumvirate of the Robotech Masters in fictional ''Robotech'' series.
- The Advocacy of the ''War of the Worlds (TV series)|War of the Worlds'' TV series, three aliens who made up a triumvirate to guide and counsel the lower classes.
- In the television series ''The Pretender (TV series)|The Pretender'', a shadowy council, called the Triumvirate, headquartered in Africa, were apparently The powers that be (phrase)|the powers that be of the mysterious Centre and were concerned about a prophecy involving Jarod.
- In the DC Universe, specifically in the series of ''Etrigan the Demon'', the Triumvirate rule Hell.
- In Orson Scott Card | Orson Scott Card's Ender Series a triumvirate of the Strategos, the Polemarch, and the Hegemon are rulers to some extent.
- In Alastair Reynolds | Alastair Reynolds's ''Revelation Space'' series the lighthugger ''Nostalgia for Infinity'' is commanded by a Triumvirate of Ultras (Revelation Space)|Ultranauts in lieu of the ship's incapacitated Captain.
- In the ''Anita Blake|Anita Blake, Vampire Hunter Series'' by Laurell K. Hamilton, Anita Blake forms a triumvirate between herself (a necromancer/animator), Jean-Claude (a master vampire) and Richard (a werewolf). There are three other triumvirates in the series. One in ''The Killing Dance'' consisting of Sabin, Cassandra and Dominic and the other in ''Burnt Offerings'' consisting of Padma, Thomas and Gideon.Anita also forms a triumvirate with Nathaniel and Damian.
- In the video game ''Onimusha: Dawn of Dreams'', the three Genma (demon) leaders, Claudius the Chancellor, Rosencrantz the Scientist and Ophelia the Priestess formed what was known as the Triumvirate. Throughout the game they worked together to resurrect the Genma God of Light, Fortinbras.
- In The Star Wars Expanded Universe, there have been several notable Triumvirates, including the Sith Triumvirate of Darths Traya, Nihilus, and Sion, and the Imperial Triumvirate of Moff Disra, Major Tierce, and Flim.
- In Captain Scarlet and the Mysterons, the episode Codename Europa features the Triumvirate of Europe.
- In the video game Tomb Raider and Tomb Raider: Anniversary Natla, Qualopec and Tihocan form the trumvirate of the Atlantis.
- In Neil Gaiman | Neil Gaiman's ''Sandman (Vertigo) | The Sandman'' series of graphic novels hell is ruled by a triumvirate of Lucifer (DC Comics)|Lucifer, Beelzebub (comics)|Beelzebub, and Azazel (DC Comics)|Azazel (although this appears to be a new occurrence as Dream (comics) | Dream seems shocked when he is informed of this.) Etrigan the Demon| Etrigan appears here as Dream's guide in Hell.
- In the Halo (series)|Halo novel series and video games, the Prophets of Truth, Mercy and Regret (ruling heads of the Covenant (Halo) | Covenant) are considered a triumvirate.

Notes

Sources and references

- Beck, Mansvelt. (1986). "The Fall of Han," in ''The Cambridge History of China: Volume I: the Ch'in and Han Empires, 221 B.C. – A.D. 220''. Edited by Denis Twitchett and Michael Loewe. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0521243270.
- Loewe, Michael. (1986). "The Former Han Dynasty," in ''The Cambridge History of China: Volume I: the Ch'in and Han Empires, 221 B.C. – A.D. 220'', 103–222. Edited by Denis Twitchett and Michael Loewe. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0521243270.
- Etymology on line
- World Statesmen here Greece - see under each present country

External links

- Livius.org: Triumvir Category:Heads of government Category:Collective heads of state

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