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Monarchy

A '''monarchy''' is a form of government in which supreme power is absolutely or nominally lodged in an individual, who is the head of state, often for Life tenure|life or until abdication, and "is wholly set apart from all other members of the state.""Bouvier, John, and Francis Rawle. ''Bouvier's Law Dictionary and Concise Encyclopedia''. 1914. 2237-2238. The person who heads a monarchy is called a '''monarch'''. It was a common form of government in the world during the Ancient world|ancient and Middle Ages|medieval times. There is no clear definition of monarchy. Holding unlimited political power in the state is not the defining characteristic, as many Constitutional monarchy|constitutional monarchies such as the United Kingdom and Thailand are considered monarchies. Hereditary rule is often a common characteristic, but Elective monarchy|elective monarchies are considered monarchies (the pope, Sovereignty|sovereign of the Vatican City|Vatican City State, is elected by the College of Cardinals) and some states have hereditary rulers, but are considered republics (such as the stadtholder of the Dutch Republic). A 1914 edition of ''Bouvier's Law Dictionary'' states that "Monarchy is contradistinguished from republic," and gives this definition: Currently, 44 nations in the world have monarchs as heads of state, 16 of which are Commonwealth realms that recognise Elizabeth II of the United Kingdom as their head of state.

Etymology

The word '''''monarch''''' () comes from the Greek language|Greek ''μονάρχης'' (from ''μόνος'', "one/singular," and ''ἀρχων'', "leader/ruler/chief") which referred to a single, at least nominally absolute ruler. With time, the word has been succeeded in this meaning by others, such as autocrat or ''dictator''. In modern use the word ''monarch'' generally is used when referring to a traditional system of hereditary rule, with elective monarchies often considered as exceptions.

Characteristics and role

Today, the extent of a monarch's powers varies:
- In an absolute monarchy, the monarch rules as an Autocracy|autocrat, with absolute power over the state and government—for example, the right to rule by decree, promulgate laws, and impose punishments. Absolute monarchies are not necessarily Authoritarianism|authoritarian; the Enlightened absolutism|enlightened absolutists of the Enlightenment were monarchs who allowed various freedoms.
- In a constitutional monarchy, the monarch is largely a Ceremony|ceremonial figurehead subject to a constitution. Sovereignty rests formally with and is carried out in name of The Crown, but politically rests with the people (electorate), as represented by the parliament or other legislature. Constitutional monarchs have little real political power, and are constituted by tradition and precedent, popular opinion, or by Code (law)|legal codes or statutes. They serve as symbols of continuity and the state and carry out largely ceremonial functions. Still, many constitutional monarchs retain certain privileges (inviolability, sovereign immunity, an official residence) and powers (to grant pardons, to appoint Nobility|titles of nobility). Additionally, some monarchs retain reserve powers, such as to dismiss a prime minister, refuse to dissolve parliament, or withhold Royal Assent to legislation, effectively vetoing it. Most states only have a single monarch at any given time, although two monarchs have ruled simultaneously in some countries (diarchy), as in the ancient Greek city-state of Sparta, and there are examples of joint sovereignty of spouses or relatives (such as William and Mary in the Kingdoms of Kingdom of England|England and Kingdom of Scotland|Scotland).Other examples of joint sovereignty include Tsars Peter I of Russia|Peter I and Ivan V of Russia|Ivan V of Russian Empire|Russia and Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor and Joanna of Castile of the Crown of Castile. A current example of constitutional diarchy is Andorra. A regent may rule when the monarch is a Minor (law)|minor, absent, or debilitated. Monarchy, especially absolute monarchy, sometimes is linked to Religion|religious aspects; many monarchs once claimed the right to rule by the will of a deity (Divine Right of Kings, Mandate of Heaven), a special connection to a deity (sacred king) or even purported to be incarnations of deities themselves (imperial cult, divine king). In Islam, a caliph is a head of state who is both a temporal leader (of the caliphate, Islamic state) and a religious one (leader of the Ummah, community of believers). Many monarchs have been styled ''Fidei defensor'' (Defender of the Faith); some hold official positions relating to the state religion or established church. Monarchs have various titles, including king or queen, prince or princess (Sovereign Prince of Monaco), emperor or empress (Emperor of Japan, Emperor of India), or even duke or grand duke (Grand Duke of Luxembourg) or duchess. Many monarchs also are distinguished by Style (manner of address)|styles, such as "Royal Highness" or "By the Grace of God". Monarchs often take part in certain ceremonies, such as a coronation. Monarchies are associated with political or sociocultural Hereditary monarchy|hereditary rule, in which monarchs rule for life (although the Yang di-Pertuan Agong of Malaysia, who serves a five-year term, and others are considered monarchs although they do not hold lifetime positions) and pass the responsibilities and power of the position to their children or family when they die. Most monarchs, both historically and in the modern day, have been born and brought up within a royal family, the center of the royal household and Noble court|court. Growing up in a royal family (when present for several generations it may be called a dynasty), and future monarchs were often trained for future duties. Different systems of Order of succession|succession have been used, such as proximity of blood, primogeniture, and agnatic seniority (Salic law). While traditionally most modern monarchs have been male, many female monarchs also have ruled in history; the term queen regnant may refer to a ruling monarch, while a queen consort may refer to the wife of a reigning king. Form of governments may be hereditary without being considered monarchies, such as that of family dictatorships.Examples include Kim il-Sung and Kim Jong-il in North Korea, the Somoza family in Nicaragua, François Duvalier and Jean-Claude Duvalier in Haiti, Hafez al-Assad and Bashar al-Assad in Syria, and Oliver Cromwell and Richard Cromwell in the Commonwealth of England. or Political family|political families in many Democracy|democracies.For example, the Kennedy family in the United States and the Nehru-Gandhi family in India. See list of political families. Some monarchies are non-hereditary. In an elective monarchy, the monarch is Election|elected, but otherwise serves as any other monarch. Historical examples of elective monarchy include the Holy Roman Emperors (chosen by prince-electors, but often coming from the same dynasty), and the free election of kings of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth. Modern examples include the pope of the Roman Catholic Church (who rules as Sovereign of the Vatican City|Vatican City State and is elected to a life term by the College of Cardinals) and the Yang di-Pertuan Agong of Malaysia. Monarchies have existed throughout the world, although in recent centuries many states have Abolished monarchy|abolished the monarchy and becomes republics. Advocacy of republics is called republicanism, while advocacy of monarchies is called monarchism. The principal advantage of hereditary monarchy is the immediate continuity of leadership, usually with a short interregnum (as seen in the classic phrase "The King is dead. Long live the King!"). In some cases monarchs are dependent on other powers (see vassals, suzerainty, puppet state, hegemony). In the British colonial era indirect rule under a paramount power existed, such as princely state under the British Raj. In other cases the monarch's power is limited, not due to constitutional restraints, but to effective military rule. In the late Roman Empire, the Praetorian Guard several times deposed Roman Emperors and installed new emperors. The Hellenistic kings of Macedon and of Epirus (region)|Epirus were elected by the army, which was similar in composition to the ''Ecclesia (ancient Athens)|ecclesia'' of democracies, the council of all free citizens; military service often was linked with citizenship among the male members of the royal house. Military domination of the monarch has occurred in modern Thailand and in medieval Japan (where an hereditary military chief, the shogun was the de facto ruler, although the Emperor of Japan|Japanese emperor nominally ruled. In Italian fascism|Fascist Italy a monarchy coexisted with a fascist party, as did Romania or Greece. Spain under Franco|Spain under Francisco Franco (was officially a monarchy, although there was no monarch on the throne. (Upon his death, Franco was succeeded as head of state by the House of Bourbon|Bourbon heir, Juan Carlos I of Spain|Juan Carlos I. A self-proclaimed monarchy is established when a person claims the monarchy without any historical ties to a previous dynasty. Napoleon I of France declared himself List of French monarchs|Emperor of the French and ruled the First French Empire after previously calling himself First Consul following his seizure of power in the coup of 18 Brumaire. Jean-Bédel Bokassa of the Central African Empire declared himself "Emperor." Yuan Shikai crowned himself Emperor of the short-lived "Empire of China (1915–1916)|Empire of China" a few years after the Republic of China was founded. In a personal union, the same person serves as monarch of separate independent states. Sometimes titles are used to express claims to territories that are not held in fact (for example, English claims to the French throne) or titles not recognized of (antipopes). A pretender is a claimant to an abolished throne or to a throne already occupied by somebody else. Abdication is when a monarch Resignation|resigns. Unique or unusual situations exist in several countries:
- In Malaysia, the federal king, called the Yang di-Pertuan Agong ("Paramount Ruler") is elected for a five-year term from and by the hereditary rulers (mostly sultans) of nine of the federation's constitutive States of Malaysia|states, all on the Malay peninsula.
- Andorra currently is the world's sole co-principality. Located in the Pyrenees between Spain and France, it has two co-princes: the Diocese of Urgell|Bishop of Urgell (a prince-bishop) in Spain and the President of France. It is the only situation in which an independent country's monarch is Democracy|democratically elected by the citizens of another country.

Succession

The rules for selection of monarchs varies from country to country. In constitutional monarchies the rule of succession generally is embodied in a law passed by a representative body, such as a parliament. In an elective monarchy, monarchs are elected or appointed by some body (an electoral college) for life. For example, Pepin the Short (father of Charlemagne) was elected List of Frankish kings|King of the Franks by an assembly of Frankish leading men; Stanisław August Poniatowski of Poland was an elected king, as was Frederick I of Denmark. Germanic peoples had elective monarchies, and the Holy Roman Emperors were elected by prince-electors, although this often was merely a formalization of what was in reality, hereditary rule. Three elective monarchies exists today. Two (Malaysia, and the United Arab Emirates) are twentieth-century creations, while one (the Pope|papacy) is ancient. In a hereditary monarchy, the position of monarch is inherited by one's relatives according to a statutory or customary order of succession, usually within one royal family tracing its origin back to a historical dynasty or bloodline. Sometimes the order of succession is affected by rules on gender. Matrilineality determined the royal lineage in Ancient Egypt for over three thousand years, but many more males reigned than females. Agnatic succession bars females. In some systems a female may rule as monarch only when the male line dating back to a common ancestor is exhausted. In 1980, Sweden became the first European monarchy to declare equal (full cognatic) primogeniture, meaning that the eldest child of the monarch, whether female or male, ascends to the throne.SOU 1977:5 ''Kvinnlig tronföljd'', p.16. Other kingdoms (such as the Netherlands in 1983, Norway in 1990, and Belgium in 1991) have since followed suit. Sometimes religion is affected; under the Act of Settlement 1701 all Roman Catholic Church|Roman Catholics are ineligible to be the Monarchy of the United Kingdom|British monarch and are skipped in the order of succession. Primogeniture, in which the eldest child of the monarch is first in line to become monarch, is the most common system. In the case of the absence of children, the next most senior member of the collateral line (for example, a younger sibling) becomes monarch. Other systems include tanistry, which is semi-elective and gives weight to merit and Salic law. In complex cases, especially in the Middle Ages, the system of primogeniture competed with the sometimes conflicting principle of proximity of blood, and outcomes were idiosyncratic. In some monarchies, such as Saudi Arabia, succession to the throne usually first passes to the monarch's next eldest brother, and only after that to the monarch's children (agnatic seniority). Appointment by the current monarch is another system, used in Jordan. In this system, the monarch chooses the successor, who may or may not be a relative.

History

Monarchy is one of the oldest forms of government among historical records, which echoes in the leadership of Tribe|tribal chiefs. Since 1800, most of the world's monarchies have been abolished, and most of the nations that retain monarchs are constitutional monarchies. Among the few states that retain aspects of absolute monarchy are Brunei, Oman, Qatar, Saudi Arabia, Swaziland, and the Vatican City. The monarch also retains considerable power in Jordan and Morocco. The most recent nation to abolish its monarchy was Nepal, which became a republic in 2008.

Africa

Early human historical records indicate that monarchs, including "kings" (a title used for both genders until finally they were called "pharaohs"), ruled in ancient Egypt over the course of three millennia (c. 3150 BCE to 31 BCE) until Egypt was absorbed by the Roman Empire. In the same time period, several kingdoms flourished in the nearby region of Nubia. In the Horn of Africa, the Aksumite Empire (fourth century BCE - first century BCE) and later the Ethiopian Empire (1270-1974) were ruled by a series of monarchs. Haile Selassie I of Ethiopia|Haile Selassie, the last Emperor of Ethiopia, was deposed in a coup d'état. The Kanem Empire (700-1376) was in central Africa. Kingdoms such as the Kingdom of Kongo (1400–1914) existed in southern Africa. Other powerful African monarchs include the Oba of Benin who ruled over the Benin Empire with its capital at Benin in modern day Nigera (unrelated to the modern day country of the Republic of Benin). The oba, (meaning '''king''' or '''ruler''' in the Yoruba language), at Oyoo who had the title, '''Alaafin of Oyo''', once lead the famous Yoruba Oyoo empire. During the reign of Igbo people|Igbo born Jaja of Opobo, Opobo was a small, but wealthy African kingdom, being one of the most lucrative centres of trade in palm oil. The Igbo people|Igbo also had the Kingdom of Nri, the oldest kingdom in Nigeria which flourished from the eleventh century till present. As part of the Scramble for Africa during colonization, Europeans conquered, bought, or established African kingdoms and styled themselves as a monarch.

Europe

Dozens of monarchies have existed in History of Europe|European history. Many no longer have a monarch: some monarchies dissolved into independent states (Austria-Hungary), others were dismantled by revolution (the Russian Empire ended after the Russian Revolution (1917)|Russian Revolution of 1917), and still others merged into a unified crown (for example, the Crown of Aragon and Crown of Castile became the Kingdom of Spain.) Today in Europe, there remain seven kingdoms, three principalities (Andorra, Liechtenstein, and Monaco), a grand duchy (Luxembourg), and a sovereign city-state (Vatican City|Vatican City State). Andorra's case is peculiar since the appointed Diocese of Urgell|Bishop of Urgell and the elected President of France are List of Co-Princes of Andorra|co-princes).

Asia

In India, the term raja and maharaja mean "king." With the switch to democracy in 1947, many royal members used their influence and popularity among people to get elected in elections. Even today in the former kingdoms, members of erstwhile royal families carry much of political weight as their opinion about the election candidates is valued by the local populace. People still see the royal families as guardians of the local culture. In China, "king" is the usual translation for the term ''wang'' (王), by the Zhou Dynasty, the sovereign before the Qin dynasty and during the Ten Kingdoms period. Before that, however, during the Three Sovereigns and Five Emperors, the Xia dynasty, and the Shang Dynasty, the ruler was called 帝(dì). During the early Han dynasty, China had a number of small kingdoms, each about the size of an English county and they were subordinate to the Emperor of China. The Emperor of Japan|Japanese monarchy remains as the only monarchy still to use the title of Emperor. The Nepalese monarchy was abolished in 2008.

Americas

Monarchies existed among the indigenous peoples of the Americas long before the European colonization of the Americas|European colonization. Those encountered by the Dutch along the eastern woodlands of North America were matrilineal, with property owned by women, some being governed by chiefs, kings, or queens. Often, little was known about their true social organization and assumptions were made about the existing leadership based upon cultural biases. Some tribes followed the council form of organization. Known Pre-Columbian titles used in the New World included Cacique (in Hispaniola and Puerto Rico) Tlatoani (Nahuatl language|Nahuatl term for the ruler of an ''altepetl'', Aztec polity), Ajaw (Maya civilization|Maya), Sapa Inca (Inca Empire), Morubixaba (Old Tupi language|Old Tupi for "chief") The Age of Discovery and European colonization brought extensive territory to European monarchs. Some colonies broke off and declared independence (such as the United States in the American Revolution and the Hispanic American wars of independence in Latin America). Canada and most colonies in British West Indies, became self-governing while remaining under the British monarchy as Commonwealth realms or British overseas territories. (See Canadian Confederation). Independent monarchs also emerged. Agustín I of Mexico|Augustin I declared himself Mexican Empire|Emperor of Mexico in 1822, after colonization. Maximilian I of Mexico|Maximilian I ruled as Mexican emperor from 1863 to 1867. Two members of the House of Braganza, Pedro I of Brazil|Pedro I and Pedro II of Brazil|Pedro II, ruled Brazil as List of Brazilian monarchs|emperors from 1822 to 1889.