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Metrication
Metrication (or metrification) refers to the introduction of the Metric system|SI metric system as the international standard for physical measurements—a long-term series of independent and systematic conversions from the various separate localism|local systems of historical weights and measures|weights and measures. Metrication began in France in the 1790s and spread widely during the following two centuries.
Overview
All countries across the globe have officially adopted the metric system except the United States of America, Liberia and Burma (Myanmar). These remaining countries have not officially adopted metric but have done so to some degree indirectly through international trade and standardisation. [http://www.metricationmatters.com/mm-newsletter-2005-12.html]
Most countries have adopted the metric system officially over a transitional period where both units are used for a set period of time. Some countries such as Guyana, for example, have officially adopted the metric system, but have had some trouble over time implementing it.[Warwick Cairns ''About the Size of It'', p. 145. (Pan Macmillan, 2007) ISBN 978-0230016286]
Antigua, also 'officially' metric, is moving toward total implementation of the metric system, but slower than expected.Before the metric system
In medieval Europe, local laws on weights and measures were set by trade guilds on a city-by-city basis. For example, the ''ell'' or ''elle'' was a unit of length commonly used in Europe, but its value varied from 40.2 centimetres in one part of German unit|Germany to 70 centimetres in Dutch unit|The Netherlands to 94.5 centimetres in English unit#Scottish system|Edinburgh. A survey of Switzerland in 1838 revealed that the ''Foot (unit of length)|foot'' had 37 different regional variations, the ''ell'' had 68, there were 83 different measures for dry grain and 70 for fluids, and 63 different measures for "dead weights".[ (Translation of: Miary i ludzie., Translated by Richard Szreter)] However, revolutionary France was to produce the definitive ''International System of Units'' which has come to be used by most of the world today.
The desire for a single international system of measurement derives from growing international trade and the need to apply common International standard|standards to goods. For a company to buy a product produced in another country, they need ensure that the product will arrive as described. The medieval ''ell'' was abandoned in part because its value could not be standardised. It can be argued that the primary advantage of the International System of Units is simply that it is international, and the pressure on countries to conform to it grew as it became increasingly an international standard. SI is not the only example of international standardisation; several powerful international standardisation organisations exist for various industries, such as the International Organisation for Standardisation, the International Electrotechnical Commission, and the International Telecommunication Union.
Conversion process
There are three common routes that nations take in converting from traditional measurement systems to the metric system. The first is a quick, so called "Big-Bang" route which was successfully used by Australia and India in the 1960s and several other developing nations since then. The second route is to phase-in units over time, and progressively outlaw traditional units. This method, favoured by industrialisation|industrial nations, is slower and generally less successful. The final route is to redefine traditional units in metric terms. This method has been used successfully where traditional units were ill-defined and had regional variations.
The first route, "Big-Bang", is to simultaneously outlaw the use of history of measurement|pre-metric measurement, metricise, reissue all government publications and laws, and change education systems to metric. India's changeover lasted from 1 April 1960, when metric measurements became legal, to 1 April 1962, when all other systems were banned. The Indian model was extremely successful and was copied over much of the developing world.
The second possibility, and first phase-in route, is to pass a law permitting the use of metric units in parallel with traditional ones, followed by education of metric units, then progressively banning the use of the older measures. This has generally been a slow route to metric. The British Empire permitted the use of metric measures in 1873, but the changeover was not completed in most countries until the 1970s and 1980s when governments took an active role in the now-independent parts of the empire. Japan, too, followed this route and did not complete the changeover for 70 years. In the United Kingdom, the process is still incomplete. By law, loose goods sold with reference to units of quantity have to be weighed and sold using the metric system. Until September 11 2007 British law stated that non-metric labeling on packages would become illegal after December 2009, however the European Union has since granted the UK the right to use supplementary measures (imperial units alongside metric) indefinitely.["EU gives up on 'metric Britain'". (11 September 2007). BBC News.] (See Metrication in the United Kingdom|metrication in UK for details.)
A final possibility is to redefine traditional units in terms of metric values. These redefined "''quasi-metric''" units often stay in use long after metrication is said to have been completed. In fact, difficulties with metrication in revolutionary France convinced Napoleon to revert to this procedure, called Mesures usuelles; to some extent the names remain throughout Europe. In the Netherlands, 500 g is informally referred to as a ''pond'' (Pound (mass)|pound) and 100 g as an ''ons'' (ounce), and in Germany and France 500 g is informally referred to respectively as ''ein Pfund'' and ''une livre'' [ "1 zeste de citron par livre (500g) de rhubarbe"]. In Denmark, the re-defined ''pund'' (500 g) is occasionally used, particularly among older people and (older) fruit growers, since these were originally paid according to the number of pounds of fruit produced. In Sweden and Norway a ''mil'' (mile) is informally equal to 10 km, and this has continued to be the predominantly used unit in conversation when referring to geographical distances. In the 19th century Switzerland had a non-metric system completely based on metric terms, e. g. 1 ''Fuss'' (foot) equal to 0.30 m = 10 ''Zoll'' (inches) equal to 0.03 m = 10 ''Linien'' (lines) equal to 0.003 m. China also followed this route of metrication, so while scientists in China know and use the kilogram, common people retain the ''jin'' (catty), which now has a value of 500 g.
It is difficult to judge the degree to which ordinary people change to using metric in their daily lives. In countries that have recently changed, demographics|older segments of the population tend to still use an older and more familiar system. Also, local variations abound in what exactly becomes metricated and what does not. In Canada, for example, ovens and cooking temperatures are usually measured in degrees Fahrenheit, and Canadians almost invariably use Fahrenheit for cooking; though this is not necessarily by choice but may instead be due to the overwhelming influence of the neighbouring and largely non-metricated United States. In the United Kingdom|UK, which is still in the process of changing over completely, Fahrenheit is seldom encountered (except when some people talk about hot summer weather) while other metric units are often used in conjunction with older measurements, and road signs use miles rather than kilometres. Such countries could be said to be "semi-metric".
Exceptions
As of 2007, the metric system officially dominates all but three countries — Burma, Liberia, and the United States[Use of Traditional Measuring Units to Be Fined — Korea Times, 10-22-2006 20:06]). Traditional measurements are still used in some areas: e.g., in plumbing the diameters of pipes are still measured in inches in some countries (in the UK all ''new'' pipes are metric). Automotive wheel diameters are still set as whole inch measurements (although tyre widths are measured in millimetres) and dots per inch continues to be used in describing graphical resolution in the computer industry. Television and monitor screen diameters are still commonly cited in inches in many countries; however, in Australia and South Africa, centimetres are often used for televisions sets, whereas CRT computer monitors and all LCD monitors are measured in inches. The only exception to the metrication process in Ireland was the pint in bars, pubs, and clubs; although alcohol sold in any other location is in metric units (usually 330 ml (canned beer), 500 ml (bottled beer), 750 ml (wine), or 1 l (spirit)). In Australia, a pint of beer was redefined to 570 ml (see Australian_beer#Beer glasses|Australian beer glasses). In both metric and non-metric countries, racing bicycle frames are generally measured in centimetres, while mountain bicycle frames are measured in inches.
In some countries (such as Antigua, see above), the transition is still in progress. The Caribbean island nation of Saint Lucia announced metrication programs in 2005 to be compatible with CARICOM.[Caribbean Net News, (17 March 2005). St Lucia moving to metric system. Retrieved 27 August 2006.] In the United Kingdom, the metric system is compulsory in most, but not all, industries. In the UK, the metric system had been legal for nearly a century before Metrication in the UK|metrication efforts began in earnest. The government had been making preparations for the conversion of the Imperial unit since the 1862 ''Select Committee on Weights and Measures'' recommended the conversion[Department of Trade and Industry, United Kingdom (15 July 1862). Report (1862) from the Select Committee on Weights and Measures.] and the ''Weights and Measures Act of 1864'' and the ''Weights and Measures (Metric System) Act of 1896'' legalised the metric system.[Metric Timeline. ''UK metric association''. Retrieved on 27 August 2006.] In 1965, with lobbying from British industries and the prospects of joining the European Community, the government set a 10 year target for full conversion and created the Metrication Board in 1969. Metrication did occur in many areas during this time period, including the re-surveying of Ordnance Survey maps in 1970, decimalisation of the Pound sterling|currency in 1971, and teaching the metric system in schools. However, no date was set for making the use of the metric system compulsory, and the Metrication Board was abolished in 1980 following a change in government.[Humble, Jim. Historical perspectives by the last Director of the UK Metrication Board. ''UK metric association''. Retrieved on 27 August 2006.] The 1989 European Units of Measurement Directive (89/617/EEC) required all member states to make the metric compulsory; however, the British negotiated certain derogations (delayed switchovers), including miles for road signs, and pints for draught beer, cider, and milk sales.[United Kingdom (1995). The Units of Measurement Regulations 1995. ''Statutory Instrument 1995 No. 1804''. ISBN 0-11-053334-8. (see Section 5(2) for exceptions.)] Advocacy groups such as the Metric Martyrs, the British Weights and Measures Association, and the Active Resistance to Metrication continue to resist the compulsory use of the metric system, on the grounds that some surveys have shown that a lot of British people do not think in metric terms[British Weights and Measures Association. Consumer Affairs Retrieved on 27 August 2006.] and because physical repackaging into rounded metric numbers could lead to reducing the quantity of goods sold for the same price.[British Weights and Measures Association. The Great Metric Rip-Off Retrieved on 27 August 2006.] It should, however, be noted that some items have been rounded up during metric changeover; for example, spirits were changed from of a Gill (unit)|gill (23.7 ml) to 25 ml and the standard loaf from 14 ounces (396.9 g) to 400 g.
Non-metric countries
Liberia, Burma (Myanmar), and the United States are the three countries that have yet to adopt metric as their official system of measurement.[The World Factbook. (2006). Washington: Central Intelligence Agency. Appendix G. Retrieved 2006-08-08 from https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/appendix/appendix-g.html.][U.S. Metric Association. Metric usage and metrication in other countries. Retrieved on 27 August 2006.] However, as previously mentioned, these countries have been influenced by metric over time through international trade and standardization. The history of metric in the United States actually goes much deeper. In the United States the use of the metric system was made legal as a system of measurement in 1866[U.S. Metric Association. Metric Act (Kasson Act) of 1866. Retrieved on 27 August 2006.] and the United States was a founding member of the International Bureau of Weights and Measures in 1875.[U.S. Metric Association. Metric Convention of 1875. Retrieved on 27 August 2006.] The system was officially adopted by the federal government in 1975 for use in the military and government agencies.[U.S. Metric Association. Metric Conversion Act of 1975. Retrieved on 27 August 2006.] In 1985, the metric system was made the preferred (but predominantly voluntary) system of weights and measures for United States trade and commerce (see Metrication in the United States). It has remained voluntary for federal and state road signage to use metric units, despite attempts in the 1990s to make it a requirement.[U.S. Metric Association. National Highway System Designation Act of 1995. Retrieved on 27 August 2006.] A 1992 amendment to the Fair Packaging and Labeling Act|Fair Packaging and Labeling Act (FPLA), which took effect in 1994, required labels on federally regulated "consumer commodities"[U.S. Metric Association. Sec. 1459. Definitions ''Fair Packaging and Labeling Act''. Retrieved on 27 August 2006.] to include both SI|metric and U.S. customary units. An amendment that would allow (but not require) metric-only labels is currently under consideration, and all but two US states (New York and Alabama) have passed laws permitting metric-only labels for the products they regulate.[Metric Methods, The rapid progress of adoption of permissible metric-only labeling at the state level. Retrieved on 27 August 2006.] Likewise, Canada also legally allows for dual labeling of goods provided that the metric unit is listed first and that there is a distinction of whether a liquid measure is a U.S. or a Canadian (Imperial) unit.[Zengerle, Jason (January/February 1999). Waits and Measures. ''Mother Jones''.] At least two states, Kentucky and California, have even moved towards demetrication of highway construction projects.[Commonwealth of Kentucky (1998). Metric to English Conversion.][State of California, Department of Transportation (2004). Metric to U.S. Customary Units (English) Transition.]Air and sea transport
Some industries have resisted metrication. Non-metric measures of speed in air and sea transport retain worldwide dominance. In these areas the nautical mile is used.
The prime unit of speed for maritime and air navigation remains the knot (nautical)|knot (nautical mile per hour).
The prime unit of measure for aviation (altitude) is usually estimated based on air pressure values and described in nominal feet rather than nominal metres. A vertical spacing of has become the standard measure for safety and clarity for purposes of air traffic control. However, several countries and air forces use metres for altitude today. The policies of the International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO) relating to measurement are:
- there should be a single system of units throughout the world
- the single system should be SI
- the use of the foot for altitude is a permitted variation
Consistent with ICAO policy, aviation has undergone a significant amount of metrication over the years; for example, runways are usually given in metres. The United States metricated the data interchange format (METAR) for temperature reports in 1996, but aviation end users (pilots and controllers) still typically prefer to view and discuss temperatures as Fahrenheit.[Jarvi, A. W. (1996). Frequently Asked Questions about METAR/SPECI and TAF. National Weather Service. Retrieved on 2008-10-18 from http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Metrication&action=edit§ion=6.] Metrication is also gradually taking place in cargo weights/dimensions and fuel volume/weight.
Accidents and incidents
Confusion over units during the process of metrication can sometimes lead to accidents. One of the most famous examples is the Gimli Glider, a Boeing 767 that ran out of fuel in Canada in 1983 due, in large part, to confusion at Air Canada during Canada's metrication.Opposition
Interestingly, considering it was the birthplace of the metric system, France experienced a particularly rough journey to metrication. The traditional French measuring system was chaotic, with size of units differing in each small town, and often even within towns. Lyon had two different values of ''pound'' in general use, one of 14 ounces, and another of 15 ounces, the latter only being used for measuring silk. The French Revolution|revolutionary government, which saw the newly conceived metric system (commissioned by the previous king) as a good fit for its ideology of "pure reason", first attempted a quick conversion, legalising metric units in 1795 and, just four years later, banning the use of traditional units. Massive popular opposition led Napoleon, after he came to power, to roll back these reforms. He publicly denounced the previous government for "tormenting people with trifles". It appears that it was decimalisation that disturbed the people most — as, although Napoleon decreed that there should be "such fractions and multiples as were generally used", he redefined the old base units in metric terms. The original metric system was made law again in France in 1837.[
Japan also saw popular resistance to its 1920s metrication program, where opponents of the metric system believed that the adoption of a foreign measuring system would have a bad influence on national sentiment, cause dislocations in public life and needless expense to the nation, prove disadvantageous to foreign trade, and hurt the national language and culture. In 1933, the government postponed the date of the first stage of conversion by five years, and the date of the second stage by ten years. The Occupied Japan|U.S. occupation resulted in a temporary conversion to U.S. customary units. The Post-Occupation Japan|post-war manufacturing boom required an international standard measurement system and the issue was pursued again in the 1950s and 1960s. The process was not completed until 1969. Traditional units are, however, still used for measurements of sake and the area of land and apartments. Nevertheless, local units had been defined in terms of metric units (e.g., 1 ''shaku'' = 10/33 metre) as early as 1891. For the measurement of ''sake'', 10 Masu (Japanese)|Japanese cups (180 millilitres each) equal 1 ''Japanese units of measurement|shō'' (traditional flask size of 1.8 litre capacity). Rice cookers are typically sold as having capacities such as 5 cups or 10 cups. (Note that the traditional Japanese cup is 180 millilitres while the American cup is 237 millilitres.][Conversion for US cup can be found in NIST (1995) ''Guide to SI Units'' Appendix B8] )
Overall, few countries have experienced much popular opposition to metrication. Some, such as 19th century European countries, Russia, India and China, converted before most of their populations were literate, so the initial conversion affected few people. For others, such as Ireland, the previous system (i.e., imperial) was seen as foreign.[
Metrication in the United Kingdom|In the United Kingdom, the issue remains controversial as it becomes bound up with issues of tradition and national symbolism.
]See also
- Conversion of units
- EN 13402|Metric clothes sizes (EN 13402)
- Preferred numbers
- Metric yardstick
- Language reform
- Metrication in the United States
- Metrication in the United Kingdom
- Anti-metrication
- Plan for Establishing Uniformity in the Coinage, Weights, and Measures of the United States
Notes
External links
- A timeline of the metric system and its use
- discusses progress of metrication in several countries
Websites supporting metrication
- Go Metric! Metrication action site
- Go Metric America
- IEEE-SA Standards Board Implementation Plan for the IEEE Metric Policy
- Metrication.US
- Metric Usage and Policy, Lawrence Berkeley Laboratory
- U.S. Metric Association
- The Metrication Board of Ireland
- EngNet Metric Conversion Chart
- The United Kingdom Metric Association campaigns for a total metric switchover in the UK
- Timeline of metric system in UK
- Metrication matters provides resources to support your metrication program.
- One Metre: Metric in Canada
- Online Metric Conversion Application
- Canadian Metric Association
Books supporting metrication
- ''Metric Signs Ahead'' (UKMA) (2005) by Robin Paice (ISBN 0955235123)
- ''A Very British Mess'' (UKMA) (2004) by Robin Paice (ISBN 0750310146)
Websites opposing metrication
- British Weights and Measures Association
Books opposing metrication
- ''The General Rule'' by Vivian Linacre (ISBN 1906069018)
- ''About the Size of It'' by Warwick Cairns (ISBN 0230016286)
- .
Category:History of science
Category:Metrication|*
Category:Systems of units
Related Images- Countries by date of metrication
- An example of metrication of UK consumer products. Two of the four items are purely metric. Milk is often sold as "1.136 litres / 2 pints". The sausages are labelled "340 g / 12 oz"
- A measuring cup, manufactured and sold in the U.S. (circa 1980) features graduations in both metric and U.S. Customary systems. Held in the right-hand, a person would have the metric graduations in front, facing them.
Sources: StartLearningNow, Wikipedia | Usage license: GNU FDL
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