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Legend
A '''legend''' (Latin, ''legenda'', "things to be read") is a narrative of human actions that are perceived both by teller and listeners to take place within human history and to possess certain qualities that give the tale verisimilitude (literature)|verisimilitude. Legend, for its active and passive participants, includes no happenings that are outside the realm of "possibility", defined by a highly flexible set of parameters, which may include miracles that are perceived as actually having happened, within the specific tradition of indoctrination where the legend arises, and within which it may be transformed over time, in order to keep it fresh and vital, and realism (arts)|realistic. The Brothers Grimm defined legend as folktale historically grounded.[Norbert Krapf, ''Beneath the Cherry Sapling: Legends from Franconia'' (New York: Fordham University Press) 1988, devotes his opening section to distinguishing the genre of legend from other narrative forms, such as fairy tale; he "reiterates the Grimms' definition of legend as a folktale historically grounded", according to Hans Sebald's review in ''German Studies Review'' '''13'''.2 (May 1990), p 312.]
A modern folklore|folklorist's professional definition of ''legend'' was proposed by Timothy R. Tangherlini in 1990:[Tangherlini, "'It Happened Not Too Far from Here...': A Survey of Legend Theory and Characterization" ''Western Folklore'' '''49'''.4 (October 1990:371-390) p. 85.]
Legend, typically, is a short (mono-) episodic, traditional, highly ecotypified[That is to say, specifically located in place and time.] historicized narrative performed in a conversational mode, reflecting on a psychological level a symbolic representation of folk belief and collective experiences and serving as a reaffirmation of commonly held values of the group to whose tradition it belongs."
Etymology and origin
The word ''"legend"'' appeared in the English language circa 1340, transmitted from mediaeval Latin language through French (language)|French. Its blurred extended (and essentially Protestant) sense of a non-historical narrative or myth was first recorded in 1613. By emphasizing the ''un''realistic character of "legends" of the saints, English-speaking Protestants were able to introduce a note of contrast to the ''"real"'' saints and martyrs of the Protestant Reformation|Reformation, whose authentic narratives could be found in John Foxe|Foxe's ''Book of Martyrs''. Thus "legend" gained its modern connotations of "undocumented" and "spurious".
Before the invention of the printing press, stories were passed on via Oral history|oral tradition. Storytelling|Storytellers learned their stock in trade: their stories, typically received from an older storyteller, who might, though more likely not, have claimed to have actually known a witness, rendered the narrative as "history". Legend is distinguished from the genre of chronicle by the fact that legends apply structures that reveal a moral definition to events, providing meaning that lifts them above the repetitions and constraints of average human lives and giving them a universality that makes them worth repeating through many generations. In German-speaking and northern European countries, "legend", which involves Christian origins, is distinguished from "Saga", being from any other (usually, but not necessarily older) origin.
The modern characterisation of what may be termed a "legend" may be said to begin in 1865 with Jacob Grimm's observation, "The fairy tale is poetic, legend, historic."["''Das Märchen ist poetischer, die Sage, historischer''"; quoted at the commencement of Tangherlini's survey of legend scholarship (Tangherlini 1990:371), which is in large part the basis of this section.] Early scholars like Karl Wehrhahn[Wehrhahn ''Die Sage'' (Leipzig) 1908.] Friedrich Ranke[Ranke, "Grundfragen der Volkssagen Forshung, in Leander Petzoldt (ed.), ''Vergleichende Sagenforschung'' 1971:1-20, noted by Tangherlini 1990.)] and Will-Erich Peukert[Peukert , ''Sagen'' (Munich: E Schmidt) 1965.] followed Grimm's example in focussing solely on the literary narrative, an approach that was enriched particularly after the 1960s[Stimulated in part, Tangherlini suggests, by the 1962 congress of the International Society for Folk Narrative Research.] by addressing questions of performance and the anthropological and psychological insights provided in considering legends' social context. Questions of categorizing legends, in hopes of compiling a content-based series of categories on the line of the Aarne-Thompson folktale index provoked a search for a broader new synthesis.
In an early attempt at defining some basic questions operative in examining folk tales, Friedrich Ranke in 1925[Ranke, "Grundfragen der Volkssagenforschung", ''Niederdeutsche Zeitschrift fur Volkskunde'' '''3''' (1925, reprinted 1969) ] characterised the folk legend as "a popular narrative with an objectively untrue imaginary content" a dismissive position that was subsequently largely abandoned.[Charles L. Perdue Jt., reviewing Linda Dégh and Andrew Vászony's essay "The crack on the red goblet or truth and the modern legend" in Richard M. Dorson, ed. ''Folklore in the Modern World'', (The Hague: Mouton)1978, in ''The Journal of American Folklore'' '''93''' No. 369 (July-September 1980:367), remarked on Ranke's definition, criticised in the essay, as a "dead issue". A more recent examination of the balance between oral performance and literal truth at work in legends forms Gillian Bennett's chaprer "Legend: Performance and Truth" in Gillian Bennett and Paul Smith, eds. ''Contemporary Legend'' (Garland) 1996:17-40.]
Compared to the highly-structured folktale, legend is comparatively formless, Helmut de Boor noted in 1928.[de Boor, "Märchenforschung", ''Zeitschrift für Deutschkunde'' '''42''' 1928:563-81.] The narrative content of legend is in realistic mode, rather than the wry irony of folktale;[Lutz Röhrich, ''Märchen und Wirklichkeit: Eine volkskundliche Untersuchung'' (Wiesbaden: Steiner Verlag) 1956:9-26.] Wilhelm Heiske[Heiske, "Das Märchen ist poetischer, die Sage, historischer: Versuch einer Kritik", ''Deutschunterricht'''''14''' 1962:69-75..] remarked on the similarity of motifs in legend and folktale and concluded that, in spite of its realistic mode, legend is not more historical than folktale.
Legend is often considered in connection with rumour, also believable and concentrating on a single episode. Ernst Bernheim suggested that legend is simply the survival of rumour.[Bernheim, ''Einleitung in der Geschichtswissenschaft''(Berlin: de Gruyter) 1928.] Gordon Allport credited the staying-power of certain rumours to the persistent cultural state-of-mind that they embody and capsulise;[Allport, ''The Psychology of Rumor'' (New York: Holt, Rinehart) 1947:164.] thus "Urban legends" are a feature of rumour.[Bengt af Klintberg, "Folksägner i dag" ''Fataburen'' 1976:269-96.] When Willian Jansen suggested that legends that disappear quickly were "short-term legends" and the persistent ones be termed "long-term legends", the distinction between legend and rumour was effectively obliterated, Tangherlini concluded.[Jansen, "Legend: oral tradition in the modern experience", ''Folklore Today, A Festschrift for William Dorson'' (Bloomington: Indiana University Press) 1972:265-72, noted in Tangherlini 1990:375.]
The elasticity of legend in its highly specific and localised social context has rendered it elusive to attempts to typify it simply through its content, as fairy tales have been successfully categorised.
Examples
A legend or legend fragment is a meme that propagates through a culture. It may be crystallized in a literary work that fixes it and which affects the future direction it will take. Such an example of this is the contrast of ''Hamlet (legend)|Hamlet'' the legend, and Shakespeare's ''Hamlet''. When a legend that is rooted in a kernel of truth is so strongly affected by an ideal that it conforms to expected literary conventions of behavior, in certain cases it turns into a Romance (genre)|Romance. Such may well be the case with a historical Arthur (see Historical basis for King Arthur), around whom legends accumulated and were expressed in the purely literary magical atmosphere of surviving Arthurian romances, collectively known as
the "Matter of Britain".
Modern retellings of the legend of Saint George omit many of the miraculous happenings that were central to earlier versions, but which have lost credibility. Thus modern "urban legends" are quite correctly termed legends: "it happened to the brother-in-law of someone my friend's mother knew". In short, legends are believable, although not necessarily believed. For the purpose of the study of legends, in the academic discipline of folkloristics, the truth value of legends is irrelevant because, whether the story told is true or not, the fact that the story is being told at all allows scholars to use it as commentary upon the cultures that produce or circulate the legends.
Hippolyte Delehaye, (in his Preface to ''The Legends of the Saints: An Introduction to Hagiography'', 1907) distinguished legend from mythology|myth: "The ''legend'', on the other hand, has, of necessity, some historical or topographical connection. It refers imaginary events to some real personage, or it localizes romantic stories in some definite spot."
A clear example, which distinguishes what is myth from what is legend, is the story of the Gordian Knot. The ''legend'' concerns Alexander the Great, who, when confronted with the ancient knot of cornel bark that secured the pole of the sacral ox-cart at Gordium in the winter of 333 BC, severed it with a slash of his sword. The ''myth'' of the Gordian Knot is the founding myth of Gordium itself, justifying the authenticity of its line of kings.
From the moment a legend is retailed ''as a legend'', its authentic legendary qualities begin to fade and recede: in ''The Legend of Sleepy Hollow'', Washington Irving transformed a local Hudson River Valley legend into a literary anecdote with Gothic novel|"Gothic" overtones, which actually tended to diminish its character as genuine legend. Like metaphors, legends may be living or dead: the vital signs of a legend depend upon its being fiercely defended as ''true,'' such as the voyage of Brendan or the Black Legend of the supposedly fanatical and cruel national character of Spain.
Related concepts
Legends that exceed these boundaries of "realism" are called "fables". The talking animal formula of Aesop identifies his brief stories as fables, not legends. The parable of the Prodigal Son would be a legend if it were told as having actually happened to a specific son of a historical father. If it included an Donkey|ass that gave sage advice to the Prodigal Son it would be a fable.
Legend may be transmitted orally, passed on person-to-person, or, in the original sense, through written text. Jacob de Voragine's ''Legenda Aurea'' or "The Golden Legend" comprises a series of ''vitae'' or instructive biographical narratives, tied to the liturgical calendar of the Roman Catholic Church. They are presented as lives of the saints, but the profusion of miraculous happenings and above all their uncritical context are characteristics of hagiography. The ''Legenda'' was intended to inspire extemporized homilies and sermons appropriate to the saint of the day.
Legend may be interpreted for its ontology|ontological consequences and be treated as mythology|myth. To take an example, myths surrounding Cadmus, a Phoenician immigrant credited with bringing the alphabet and other Near Eastern culture to Bronze Age Greece, may have begun as a series of legends gathering around the memory of the historical founder of certain coastal cities in Greece. Explaining the origins of myth as former historical legends in this fashion is termed "euhemerism". See the entry Euhemerus for more detail.
Conspiracy theory|Conspiracy theories are similar to legends in that the linchpin of the conspiracy is usually a plausible, but unprovable secret agenda which exclusively drives the story and links otherwise unconnected happenings into a satisfying pattern: thus meaning is supplied for events.
Some famous legends
- Atlantis
- Cenodoxus, or the Damnation of the Good Doctor of Paris, told as an event justifying the sanctification of St. Bruno
- King Arthur and the Knights of the Round Table
- Celtic Legends
- Roma society and culture|Romani legends and Romulus and Remus
- El Dorado and the Fountain of Youth
- Vlad III Dracula|Vlad the Impaler; stories of his cruelty have attained legendary status, most likely spread post-mortem by his enemies.
- Ramayana Legend of Rama the prince of Ayodhya
- Robin Hood
- Roland
- Fiveval
- William Tell
- Legends of Africa
- Philosopher's stone
- Odysseus, for those convinced that a historical Odysseus existed and seek to locate his Ithaca.
- Beowulf, for those convinced that a historical Beowulf existed, his supposed Burial mound has yet to be excavated.
- Shangri-La
Legendary animals
Legendary animals are those a traveler in an exotic place might hope or fear to meet: their descriptions are always presented within the conventions of realism that are accepted by their hearers, though the details might stretch credulity: the basilisk. They do not include ''mythical animals'', like the sphinx or the Nemean lion. Some real animals have developed legends: the Tiger|man-eating tigers of the Sundarbans, for instance, or blond spirit bears.
- Yeti
- Sasquatch (Bigfoot)
- Loch Ness monster
- Jackalope
- Chupacabra
- Bunyip
- Dragon
References
- Hippolyte Delehaye, ''The Legends of the Saints: An Introduction to Hagiography'' (1907), Chapter I: Preliminary Definitions, ''et passim''
- Karl Kerenyi, ''The Heroes of the Greeks'' (1959)
- Catholic Encyclopedia article ''Literary or Profane Legends''
- Timothy R. Tangherlini, "'It Happened Not Too Far from Here...': A Survey of Legend Theory and Characterization" ''Western Folklore'' '''49'''.4 (October 1990:371-390). A condensed survey with extensive bibliography.
External Links
- Mysterious Britain & Ireland Legends and folklore of Britain Ireland
- Bashkir folk-tales and legends (Bashkirs - the etnic group in Russia)
Category:Legends|*
Category:Literary genres
Category:Oral tradition
Category:Narrative units
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