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Ficus
'''''Ficus''''' is a genus of about 850 species of woody trees, shrubs, vines, epiphytes, and hemiepiphyte in the family (biology)|family Moraceae. Collectively known as '''fig trees''' or '''figs''', they are native throughout the tropics with a few species extending into the semi-warm temperate zone. The so-called Common Fig (''F. carica'') is a temperate species from the Middle East and eastern Europe (mostly Ukraine), which has been widely cultivated from ancient times for its fruit, also referred to as '''figs'''. The fruit of most other species are also edible though they are usually of only local economic importance or eaten as bushfood. However, they are extremely important food resources for wildlife. Figs are also of paramount cultural importance throughout the tropics, both as objects of worship and for their many practical uses.
Description
Figs occupy a wide variety of ecological niches. Take, for example, the Common Fig, a small temperate deciduous tree whose fingered fig leaf is well-known in art and iconography; or the Weeping Fig (''F. benjamina'') a hemi-epiphyte with thin tough leaves on pendulous stalks adapted to its rain forest habitat; or the rough-leaved sandpaper figs from Australia; or the Creeping Fig (''F. pumila''), a vine whose small, hard leaves form a dense carpet of foliage over rocks or garden walls. Moreover, figs with different plant habits have undergone adaptive radiation in different biogeographic regions, often leading to very high levels of alpha diversity. In the tropics, it is quite common to find that ''Ficus'' is the most species-rich plant genus in a particular forest. In Asia as many as 70 or more species can co-exist.[Harrison (2005)]
Although identifying many of the species can be difficult, figs as a group are relatively easy to recognize. Often the presence of aerial roots or the general shape of the plant will give them away. Their fruit are also distinct. The fig fruit is in fact an enclosed inflorescence, sometimes referred to as a syconium, an urn-like structure lined on the inside with the fig's tiny flowers. The unique fig pollination system, involving tiny, highly specific wasps, know as fig wasps that enter these closed inflorescences to both pollinate and lay their own eggs, has been a constant source of inspiration and wonder to biologists[Rønsted ''et al.'' (2005)]. Finally, there are three vegetative traits that together are unique to figs. All figs possess a white to yellowish sap (latex), some in copious quantities; the twig has paired stipules or a circular stipule scar if the stipules have fallen off; and the lateral veins at the base of the leaf are steep, that is they form a tighter angle with the midrib than the other lateral veins, a feature referred to as a "tri-veined".
Unfortunately, there are no unambiguous older fossils of ''Ficus''. However, current molecular clock estimates indicate that ''Ficus'' is a relatively ancient genus being at least 60 million years oldEcology and uses
Figs are keystone species in many rainforest ecosystems. Their fruit are a key resource for some frugivores including Megabat|fruit bats, capuchin monkeys, Colobinae|langurs and mangabeys. They are even more important for some birds. megalaimidae|Asian barbets, Columbidae|pigeons, hornbills, Cyclopsitticini|fig-parrots and bulbuls are examples of taxon|taxa which may almost entirely subsist on figs when these are in plenty. Many Lepidoptera caterpillars, for example of several ''Euploea'' species (Crow butterflies), the Danaus chrysippus|Plain Tiger (''Danaus chrysippus''), the Papilio cresphontes|Giant Swallowtail (''Papilio cresphontes''), the Badamia exclamationis|Brown Awl (''Badamia exclamationis''), and ''Chrysodeixis eriosoma'', Choreutidae and Copromorphidae moths feed on fig leaves. The Citrus long-horned beetle (''Anoplophora chinensis''), for example, has larvae which feed on wood, including that of fig trees; it can become a pest (organism)|pest in fig plantations. Similarly, the Sweet Potato Whitefly (''Bemisia tabaci'') is frequently found as a pest on figs grown as houseplant|potted plants and is spread through the export of these plants to other localities. For a list of other diseases common to fig trees, see List of foliage plant diseases (Moraceae).
The wood of fig trees is often soft and the latex precludes its use for many purposes. It was used to make mummy caskets in Ancient Egypt. Certain fig species (mainly ''Ficus cotinifolia|F. cotinifolia'', ''Ficus insipida|F. insipida'' and ''Ficus padifolia|F. padifolia'') are traditionally used in Mesoamerica to produce ''papel amate'' (Nahuatl: ''āmatl''). ''Mutuba'' (''Ficus natalensis|F. natalensis'') is used to produce barkcloth in Uganda. ''Pou'' (''sacred fig|F. religiosa'' leaves' shape inspired one of the standard ''kbach|kbach rachana'', decorative elements in Cambodian architecture. Ficus benjamina|Weeping Fig (''F. benjamina'') and Ficus elastica|Indian Rubber Plant (''F. elastica'') are identified as powerful air-cleaning plants in the NASA Clean Air Study. Ficus benghalensis|Indian Banyan (''F. bengalensis'') and the Indian Rubber Plant, as well as other species, have use in herbalism. The latter is known to be a hyperaccumulator of benzene and methane, and urban or potted plants should be considered toxic for that reason.
Figs have figured prominently in some human cultures. There is evidence that figs, specifically the Common Fig (''F. carica'') and Sycamore Fig (''F. sycomorus''), were among the first - if not the very first - plant species that were deliberately bred for agriculture in the Middle East, starting more than 11,000 years ago. Nine subfossil ''F. carica'' figs dated to about 10th millennium BC|9400-9200 BC were found in the early Neolithic village Gilgal I (in the Jordan Valley, 13 km north of Jericho). These were a parthenocarpy|parthenocarpic type and thus apparently an early cultivar. This find predates the cultivation of cereal|grain in the Middle East by many hundreds of years.[Kislev ''et al.'' (2006a, b), Lev-Yadun ''et al.'' (2006)].
Cultural and spiritual significance
Fig trees has profoundly influenced culture through several religious traditions. Among the more famous species are the Sacred Fig tree (''Peepul, Bodhi, Bo,'' or ''Po, Ficus religiosa'') and the Banyan Fig (''Ficus benghalensis''). The oldest living plant of known planting date is a ''Ficus religiosa'' tree known as the Sri Maha Bodhi planted in the temple at Anuradhapura, Sri Lanka by King Tissa in 288 BC. It is one of the two sacred trees of Islam, and there is a sura in Quran named "The Fig" or At-Tin(سوره تین), and in East Asia, figs are pivotal in Buddhism, Hinduism and Jainism. Gautama Buddha|Siddhārtha Gautama, the Supreme Buddhahood|Buddha, is traditionally held to have found ''bodhi'' (enlightenment) while meditating under a Sacred fig|Sacred Fig (''F. religiosa''). The same species was ''Ashvastha'', the "world tree" of Hinduism. The ''Sacred fig|Plaksa Pra-sravana'' was said to be a fig tree between the roots of which the Sarasvati River sprang forth; it is usually held to be a Sacred Fig but more probably seems to be a Wavy-leaved Fig (''Ficus infectoria|F. infectoria''). The Common Fig tree is cited in the Bible, where in Genesis 3:7, Adam and Eve cover their nakedness with fig leaves. The fig fruit is also included in the list of food found in the Promised Land, according to the Torah (Deut. 8). Other important plants reported included: wheat, barley, grapes, pomegranates, olives, and dates (representing the honey).
Fig pollination and fig fruit
Many are grown for their fruits, though only ''Ficus carica'' is cultivated to any extent for this purpose. Furthermore, the fig fruits, important as both food and traditional medicine, contain laxative substances, flavonoids, sugars, vitamins A and C, acids and enzymes. However, figs are skin allergens, and the sap is a serious eye irritant. The fig is commonly thought of as fruit, but it is properly the flower of the fig tree. It is in fact a false fruit or multiple fruit, in which the flowers and seeds grow together to form a single mass.
The genus ''Dorstenia'', also in the figs family (Moraceae), exhibits similar tiny flowers arranged on a receptacle but in this case the receptacle is a more or less flat, open surface.
A fig "fruit" is derived from a specially adapted type of inflorescence (an arrangement of multiple flowers). In this case, it is an involuted, nearly closed receptacle with many small flowers arranged on the ''inner'' surface. Thus the actual flowers of the fig are unseen unless the fig is cut open. In Chinese (language)|Chinese the fig is called ''wú huā guǒ'' )), "fruit without flower"[Denisowksi (2007)]. In Bengali language|Bengali, where the Common Fig is called ''dumur'', it is referenced in a proverb: ''tumi jeno dumurer phool hoe gele'' ("You have become like the ''dumur'' flower").
The syconium often has a bulbous shape with a small opening (the ostiole) at the outward end that allows access to pollinators. The flowers are pollinated by Fig wasp|very small wasps that crawl through the opening in search of a suitable place to lay eggs. Without this pollinator service fig trees cannot reproduce by seed. In turn, the flowers provide a safe haven and nourishment for the next generation of wasps. This accounts for the frequent presence of wasp larvae in the fruit. Technically, a fig fruit proper would be one of the many tiny mature, seed-bearing flowers found inside one fig - if you cut open a fresh fig, the flowers will appear as fleshy "threads", each bearing a single seed inside.
The fig plants can be monoecious (hermaphrodite) or dioecious (hermaphrodite and female):[Berg & Corner (2005)]
- All the native fig trees of the American continent are hermaphrodites, as well as species like Indian Banyan (''F. benghalensis''), Weeping Fig (''F. benjamina''), Indian Rubber Plant (''F. elastica''), Fiddle-leaved Fig (''F. lyrata''), Moreton Bay Fig (''F. macrophylla''), Chinese Banyan (''F. microcarpa''), Sacred Fig (''F. religiosa'') and Sycamore Fig (''F. sycomorus'').
- On the other hand the Common Fig (''Ficus carica'') is a dioecious plant, as well as ''Ficus aspera|F. aspera'', Roxburgh Fig (''Ficus auriculata|F. auriculata''), Mistletoe Fig (''Ficus deltoidea|F. deltoidea''), ''Ficus pseudopalma|F. pseudopalma'', Creeping Fig (''F. pumila'') and related species.
The hermaphrodite Common Figs are called '''"inedible figs"''' or '''caprifigs'''; in traditional culture in the Mediterranean region, they were considered food for goats (''Capra aegagrus''). In the female fig trees, the male flower parts fail to develop; they produce the '''"edible figs"'''. Fig wasps grow in Common Fig caprifigs but not in the female syconiums because the female flower is too long for the wasp to successfully lay her eggs in them. Nonetheless, the wasp pollinates the flower with pollen from the fig it grew up in. When the wasp dies, it is broken down by enzymes inside the fig. Fig wasps are not known to transmit any diseases harmful to humans.
When a caprifig ripens, another caprifig must be ready to be pollinated. In temperate climes, wasps hibernate in figs, and there are distinct crops. Common Fig caprifigs have three crops per year; edible figs have two. The first ('''breba'''[CRFG (1996)]) produces small fruits called '''olynth'''. Some parthenocarpic cultivars of Common Figs do not require pollination at all, and will produce a crop of figs (albeit sterile) in the absence of caprifigs or fig wasps.
There is typically only one species of wasp capable of fertilizing the flowers of each species of fig, and therefore plantings of fig species outside of their native range results in effectively sterile individuals. For example, in Hawaii, some 60 species of figs have been introduced, but only four of the wasps that fertilize them have been introduced, so only four species of figs produce viable seeds there. This is an example of mutualism, i.e. one organism (fig plant) can not propagate itself without the other one (fig wasp).
The intimate association between fig species and their wasp pollinators, along with the high incidence of a one-to-one plant-pollinator ratio have long led scientists to believe that figs and wasps are a clear example of coevolution. Morphological and reproductive behavior evidence, such as the correspondence between fig and wasp larvae maturation rates, have been cited as support for this hypothesis for many years[Machado ''et al.'' (2001)]. Additionally, recent genetic and molecular dating analyses have shown a very close correspondence in the character evolution and speciation phylogenies of these two clades. Selected species
[[File:Ficus abutilifolius MS 10385.jpg|thumb|right|''Ficus abutilifolia'']]
- '' Ficus abutilifolia'' (Miq.) Miq. (= ''F. soldanella'' Warb.)
- '' Ficus adhatodifolia'' Schott
- '' Ficus aguaraguensis''
- '' Ficus albert-smithii''
- '' Ficus albipila'' – Abbey Tree, Phueng Tree, '' tandiran''
- '' Ficus altissima''
- '' Ficus amazonica''
- '' Ficus americana''
- '' Ficus andamanica''
- '' Ficus angladei''
- '' Ficus apollinaris'' Dugand (= ''F. petenensis'' Lundell)
- '' Ficus aripuanensis''
- '' Ficus arpazusa'' [Brazil. Described by Carauta & Diaz (2002): pp.38-39]
- '' Ficus aspera'' - ''Ficus aspera'' var. ''parcelli''
- '' Ficus aurea'' – Florida Strangler Fig
- '' Ficus auriculata'' – Roxburgh Fig
- '' Ficus barbata'' – Bearded Fig
- '' Ficus battieri''
- '' Ficus beddomei'' – Thavital
- '' Ficus benghalensis'' – Indian Banyan, Bengal Fig, East Indian Fig, ''borh'' ( Pakistan), ''vad/vat/wad'', ''nyagrodha'', " indian fig"
- '' Ficus benjamina'' – Weeping Fig, Benjamin's Fig
- '' Ficus bibracteata''
- '' Ficus bizanae''
- '' Ficus blepharophylla''
- '' Ficus bojeri''
- '' Ficus broadwayi''
- '' Ficus bubu'' Warb.
- '' Ficus burtt-davyi'' Hutch.
- '' Ficus calyptroceras''
- '' Ficus capreifolia'' Del.
- '' Ficus carchiana'' C.C.Berg
- '' Ficus carica'' – Common Fig, ''anjeer'' (Pakistan), ''dumur'' ( Bengali language| Bengali)
- '' Ficus castellviana''
- '' Ficus catappifolia''
- '' Ficus citrifolia'' – Short-leaved Fig, Wild Banyantree
- '' Ficus clusiifolia''
- '' Ficus congesta''
- '' Ficus cordata'' Thunb. - ''Ficus cordata'' ssp. ''salicifolia'' (Vahl) Berg
- '' Ficus coronata'' – Creek Sandpaper Fig
- '' Ficus costaricana'' (Liebm.) Miq.
- '' Ficus cotinifolia''
- '' Ficus crassipes'' – Round-leaved Banana Fig
- '' Ficus crassiuscula'' Standl.
- '' Ficus craterostoma'' Warb. ex Mildbr. & Burr.
- '' Ficus cristobalensis''
- '' Ficus cyclophylla''
- '' Ficus dammaropsis'' – Highland Breadfruit, ''kapiak'' ( Tok Pisin)
- '' Ficus dendrocida''
- '' Ficus deltoidea'' – Mistletoe Fig
- '' Ficus destruens''
- '' Ficus drupacea''
- '' Ficus ecuadorensis'' C.C.Berg
- '' Ficus elastica'' – Indian Rubber Plant, Rubber Fig, " rubber tree", " rubber plant" - ''Ficus elastica'' cv. 'Decora' - ''Ficus elastica'' var. ''variegata''
- '' Ficus elasticoides''
- '' Ficus elliotiana''
- '' Ficus enormis''
- '' Ficus erecta'' – Japanese fig, イヌビワ
- '' Ficus faulkneriana''
- '' Ficus fischeri'' Warb. ex Mildbr. & Burr. (= ''F. kiloneura'' Hornby)
- '' Ficus fistulosa''
- '' Ficus fraseri'' – Shiny Sandpaper Fig, White Sandpaper Fig, " figwood", " watery fig"
- '' Ficus fulvo-pilosa'' Summerh.
- '' Ficus gardneriana''
- '' Ficus gibbosa''
- '' Ficus gigantosyce'' Dugand
- '' Ficus gilletii''
- '' Ficus glabra''
- '' Ficus glaberrima''
- '' Ficus glumosa'' (Miq.) Del. (=''F. sonderi'' Miq.)
- '' Ficus godeffroyi''
- '' Ficus gomelleira''
- '' Ficus greiffiana''
- '' Ficus grenadensis''
- '' Ficus grossularioides'' – White-leaved Fig
- '' Ficus guajavoides'' Lundell
- '' Ficus guaranitica'' [Brazil, Paraguay and Argentina: Carauta & Diaz (2002): pp.64-66]
- '' Ficus guianensis'' [Brazil: Carauta & Diaz (2002): pp.67-69]
- '' Ficus hartii''
- '' Ficus hebetifolia''
- '' Ficus hederacea''
- '' Ficus heterophylla''
- '' Ficus hirsuta''
- '' Ficus hirta'' Vahl
- '' Ficus hispida''
- '' Ficus hispita'' L.
- '' Ficus ilicina'' (Sond.) Miq.
- '' Ficus illiberalis''
- '' Ficus insipida'' - ''Ficus insipida'' ssp. ''insipida'' - ''Ficus insipida'' ssp. ''scabra''
- '' Ficus luschnathiana'' ( Miq.) Miq.
- '' Ficus infectoria'' – Wavy-leaved Fig, '' plaksa''
- '' Ficus ingens'' (Miq.) Miq.
- '' Ficus krukovii''
- '' Ficus lacor''
- '' Ficus lacunata''
- '' Ficus laevigata'' – Jamaican Cherry
- '' Ficus laevis''
- '' Ficus lapathifolia''
- '' Ficus lateriflora''
- '' Ficus lauretana''
- '' Ficus loxensis'' C.C.Berg
- '' Ficus lutea'' Vahl (= ''F. vogelii'', ''F. nekbudu'', ''F. quibeba'' Welw. ex Fical.)
- '' Ficus lyrata'' – Fiddle-leaved Fig
- '' Ficus macbridei'' Standl.
- '' Ficus macrocarpa''
- '' Ficus macrophylla'' – Moreton Bay Fig
- '' Ficus magnifolia''
- '' Ficus malacocarpa''
- '' Ficus mariae''
- '' Ficus masonii'' Horne ex Baker
- '' Ficus mathewsii''
- '' Ficus matiziana''
- '' Ficus mauritiana''
- '' Ficus maxima''
- '' Ficus maximoides'' C.C.Berg
- '' Ficus meizonochlamys''
- '' Ficus mexiae''
- '' Ficus microcarpa'' – Chinese Banyan, Malayan Banyan, Curtain Fig, " Indian laurel" - ''Ficus microcarpa'' var. ''hillii'' – Hill's Fig - ''Ficus microcarpa'' var. ''nitida'' - often considered a subspecies of ''F. retusa'' or a distinct species
- '' Ficus minahasae'' – '' longusei'' ( Sulawesi)
- '' Ficus mollior'' F.Muell. ex George Bentham| Benth.
- '' Ficus monckii''
- '' Ficus montana''
- '' Ficus muelleri''
- '' Ficus muelleriana''
- '' Ficus mutabilis''
- '' Ficus mutisii'' Dugand
- '' Ficus mysorensis''
- '' Ficus natalensis'' Hochst. – '' mutuba'' ( Luganda) - ''Ficus natalensis'' ssp. ''leprieurii'' - ''Ficus natalensis'' ssp. ''natalensis''
- '' Ficus neriifolia''
- '' Ficus nervosa''
- '' Ficus noronhae''
- '' Ficus nota'' – '' tibig''
- '' Ficus nymphaeifolia''
- '' Ficus oapana'' C.C.Berg
- '' Ficus obliqua'' – Small-leaved Fig
- '' Ficus obtusifolia''
- '' Ficus obtusiuscula'' (Miq.) Miq.
- '' Ficus opposita'' – Sweet Sandpaper Fig, Sweet Fig, " figwood", " watery fig"
- '' Ficus organensis'' ( Miq.) Miq.
- '' Ficus padifolia''
- '' Ficus pakkensis''
- '' Ficus pallida''
- '' Ficus palmata''
- '' Ficus pandurata''
- '' Ficus pantoniana'' – Climbing Fig
- '' Ficus panurensis''
- '' Ficus pertusa''
- '' Ficus petiolaris'' (= ''F. palmeri'')
- '' Ficus pilosa''
- '' Ficus piresiana'' Vázq.Avila & C.C.Berg
- '' Ficus platypoda'' – Desert Fig, Rock Fig
- '' Ficus pleurocarpa'' – Banana Fig, Gabi Fig, Karpe Fig
- '' Ficus polita'' Vahl - ''Ficus polita'' ssp. ''polita''
- '' Ficus prolixa'' G.Forst. (= ''F. mariannensis'' Merr.)
- '' Ficus pseudopalma'' Blanco
- '' Ficus pulchella''
- '' Ficus pumila'' – Creeping Fig - Ficus pumila var. awkeotsang| ''Ficus pumila'' var. ''awkeotsang''
- '' Ficus pyriformis''
- '' Ficus racemosa'' – Cluster Fig, Goolar Fig, ''udumbara'' ( Sanskrit), ''umbar'' (India)
- '' Ficus ramiflora''
- '' Ficus religiosa'' – Sacred Fig, ''arali'', ''bo, pipal, pippala, pimpal'' (etc.), ''pou'' ( Cambodia), '' Ashvastha''
- '' Ficus retusa'' – Taiwan Fig, Ginseng Fig, " Indian laurel"
- '' Ficus rieberiana'' C.C.Berg
- '' Ficus roraimensis''
- '' Ficus roxburghii''
- '' Ficus rubiginosa'' – Port Jackson Fig, Little-leaved Fig, Rusty Fig, ''damun'' ( Sydney Language)
- '' Ficus rumphii'' Blume – Rumpf's Fig
- '' Ficus salicifolia'' Vahl (= ''F. pretoriae'' Burtt Davy) – Willow-leaved Fig
- '' Ficus salzmanniana''
- '' Ficus sansibarica'' Warb.
- '' Ficus sarmentosa''
- '' Ficus saussureana''
- '' Ficus schippii''
- '' Ficus schultesii''
- '' Ficus schumacheri''
- '' Ficus sphenophylla''
- '' Ficus stahlii''
- '' Ficus stuhlmannii'' Warb.
- '' Ficus subpuberula''
- '' Ficus superba''
- '' Ficus sur'' Forssk. (= ''F. capensis'')
- '' Ficus sycomorus'' – Sycamore Fig, Fig-mulberry - ''Ficus sycomorus'' ssp. ''sycomorus'' - ''Ficus sycomorus'' ssp. ''gnaphalocarpa'' (Miq.) C.C. Berg
- '' Ficus tettensis'' Hutch. (= ''F. smutsii'' Verdoorn)
- '' Ficus thonningii''
- '' Ficus tinctoria'' – Dye Fig, Humped Fig
- '' Ficus tobagensis''
- '' Ficus tomentella''
- '' Ficus tomentosa''
- '' Ficus tonduzii'' Standl.
- '' Ficus tremula'' Warb. - ''Ficus tremula'' ssp. ''tremula''
- '' Ficus triangularis''
- '' Ficus trichopoda'' Bak. (= ''F. hippopotami'' Gerstn.)
- '' Ficus trigona'' L.f.
- '' Ficus trigonata''
- '' Ficus triradiata'' – Red-stipule Fig
- '' Ficus ulmifolia''
- '' Ficus umbellata''
- '' Ficus ursina''
- '' Ficus variegata'' Bl. - ''Ficus variegata'' var. ''chlorocarpa'' King
- '' Ficus variolosa''
- '' Ficus velutina''
- '' Ficus verruculosa'' Warb.
- '' Ficus virens'' – White Fig, ''pilkhan'', ''an-borndi'' ( Gun-djeihmi)
- '' Ficus virgata''
- '' Ficus wassa''
- '' Ficus watkinsiana'' – Watkins' Fig, Nipple Fig, Green-leaved Moreton Bay Fig
- '' Ficus yoponensis'' Desv.
List of famous fig trees
- ''Ashvastha'' – the world tree of Hinduism, held to be a supernatural ''F. religiosa''
- Bodhi tree – a ''F. religiosa''
- Charybdis Fig Tree of the Odyssey, presumably a ''F. carica''
- Curtain Fig Tree – a ''F. virens''
- Ficus Ruminalis – a ''F. carica''
- ''Plaksa'' – another supernatural fig in Hinduism; usually identified as ''F. religiosa'' but probably ''F. infectoria ''
- Santa Barbara's Moreton Bay Fig Tree – a ''F. macrophylla''
- Sri Maha Bodhi – another ''F. religiosa''. Planted in 288 BC, the oldest human-planted tree on record
- The Great Banyan – a ''F. benghalensis'', a clonal colony and once the largest organism known
- Vidurashwatha – "Vidura's Sacred Fig tree", a village in India named after a famous ''F. religiosa'' that until recently stood there
See also
- Abraham Mauricio Salazar, famous ''papel amate'' artist
- Amphoe Pho Sai and Amphoe Suan Phueng, districts in Thailand named after ''Ficus'' species
- Banyan
- Edred John Henry Corner
- Fig Newton (Fig Roll)
- Fig-parrots
- Figtree
- List of fruits
- Miracles of Jesus#Controlling Nature|Miracles of Jesus: the The Fig Tree|parable of the barren fig tree
- Mission fig
- Naturopathic medicine
- Nutrition
- ''Pharmacosycea'', a ''Ficus'' subgenus
- Phytonutrients
- Pippalada - Atharva-Veda scholar whose name means "Sacred Fig eater"
- Strangler Fig
- Figs in the Bible
Footnotes
References
- (2005): Moraceae. ''In: Flora Malesiana'' Ser. I, vol. 17, part 2.
- (1996): Fig. Retrieved 2008-NOV-01.
- (2002): ''Figueiras no Brasil''. Editora UFRJ, Rio de Janeiro. ISBN 8571082502
- (2007): Chinese-English Dictionary – Fig. Retrieved 2008-NOV-01.
- (2005): Figs and the diversity of tropical rain forests. ''Bioscience'' '''55'''(12): 1053-1064. Digital Object Identifier|DOI:10.1641/0006-3568(2005)0551053:FATDOT2.0.CO;2 PDF fulltext
- (2006a): Early Domesticated Fig in the Jordan Valley. ''Science (journal)|Science'' '''312'''(5778): 1372. (HTML abstract) Supporting Online Material
- (2006b): Response to Comment on "Early Domesticated Fig in the Jordan Valley". ''Science (journal)|Science'' '''314'''(5806): 1683b. PDF fulltext
- (2006): Comment on "Early Domesticated Fig in the Jordan Valley". ''Science (journal)|Science'' '''314'''(5806): 1683a. PDF fulltext
- (1999): ''Ancient trees: Trees that live for 1000 years'': 192. London, Collins & Brown Limited.
- (2005): 60 million years of co-divergence in the fig-wasp symbiosis. ''Proceedings_of_the_Royal_Society#Proceedings_of_the_Royal_Society_B|Proc. R. Soc. B'' '''272'''(1581): 2593-2599. PDF fulltext
- (2001): Fig-eating by vertebrate frugivores: a global review. ''Biological Reviews'' '''76'''(4): 529-572. PDF fulltext Electonic appendices
External links
- Figweb Major reference site for the genus ''Ficus''
- Video: Interaction of figs and fig wasps Multi-award-winning documentary
- Fruits of Warm Climates: Fig
- California Rare Fruit Growers: Fig Fruit Facts
- North American Fruit Explorers: Fig
- BBC: Fig fossil clue to early farming
Category:Accessory fruit
Category:Ficus|
Category:Plant morphology
Category:Fruit
simple:Fig
Related Images- Inside of a ripe brown Turkish fig
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