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Daniel Defoe

Daniel Defoe (''c.'' 1659 – 24 April 1731According to Paul Duguid in "Limits of self organization", ''First Monday'' (September 11, 2006): "Most reliable sources hold that the date Defoe’s his birth was uncertain and may have fallen in 1659 or 1661. The day of his death is also uncertain."), born '''Daniel Foe''', was an English writer, journalist, and pamphleteer, who gained enduring fame for his novel ''Robinson Crusoe''. Defoe is notable for being one of the earliest proponents of the novel, as he helped to popularise the form in Britain, and is even referred to by some as among the founders of the English novel.Schwanitz: "Bildung: alles, was man wissen muss", edited by Eichborn, Frankfurt 1999. A prolific and versatile writer, he wrote more than 500 books, pamphlets, and journals on various topics (including politics, crime, religion, marriage, psychology and the supernatural). He was also a pioneer of List of scholarly journals in economics|economic journalism.

Biography

Early life

Daniel Foe (his original name) was probably born in the parish of St. Giles Cripplegate London. (Daniel later added the aristocratic sounding "De" to his name and on occasion claimed descent from the family of De Beau Faux.) Both the date and the place of his birth are uncertain with sources often giving dates of 1659 to 1661. His father, James Foe, though a member of the Worshipful Company of Butchers|Butchers' Company, was a tallow chandler. In Daniel's early life he experienced first-hand some of the most unusual occurrences in English history: in 1665, 70,000 were killed by the Great Plague of London. On top of all these catastrophes, the Great Fire of London (1666) hit Defoe's neighbourhood hard, leaving only his and two other homes standing in the area.West, Richard. Daniel Defoe: The Life and Strange, Surprising Adventures. New York: Carroll & Graf|Carroll & Graf Publishers. 1998. ISBN 978-0786705573 In 1667, when Defoe was probably about seven years old, a Dutch fleet sailed up the Medway via the River Thames and attacked Chatham. All of this happened before Defoe was around seven years old, and by the time he was about thirteen years old, Defoe's mother had died.Richetti, John J. The Life of Daniel Defoe. Malden, MA: Blackwell Publishing, 2005. His parents were Presbyterian dissenters; he was educated in a English Dissenters|Dissenting Academy at Newington Green run by Charles Morton (educator)|Charles Morton), and is believed to have attended Newington Green Unitarian Church|the church there."Defoe in Stoke Newington". Arthur Secord, P.M.L.A. Vol. 66, p. 211, 1951. Cited in Thorncroft, p. 9, who identifies him as "an American scholar". Although Defoe was a Christian himself, he decided not to become a dissenting minister, and entered the world of business as a general merchant, dealing at different times in hosiery, general woollen goods, and wine. Though his ambitions were great and he bought both a country estate and a ship (as well as Civet|civet cats to make perfume), he was rarely free of debt. In 1684, Defoe married a woman by the name of Mary Tuffley, receiving a dowry of £3,700. With his recurring debts, their marriage was most likely a difficult one. They had eight children, six of whom survived. In 1685, he joined the ill-fated Monmouth Rebellion, but gained a pardon by which he escaped the Bloody Assizes of Judge George Jeffreys. In 1692, Defoe was arrested for payments of £700 (and his civets were seized), though his total debts may have amounted to £17,000. His laments were loud, and he always defended unfortunate debtors, but there is evidence that his financial dealings were not always honest. Following his release, he probably travelled in Europe and Scotland, and it may have been at this time that he traded in wine to Cadiz, Porto, and Lisbon. By 1695 he was back in England, using the name "Defoe", and serving as a "commissioner of the glass duty", responsible for collecting the tax on bottles. In 1696, he was operating a tile and brick factory in what is now Tilbury, Essex and living in the parish of Chadwell St Mary.

Pamphleteering and prison

File:Daniel Defoe by James Charles Armytage.jpg|right|thumb|Daniel Defoe in the pillory, 1862 line engraving by James Charles Armytage after Eyre Crowe Defoe's first notable publication was ''An Essay upon Projects'', a series of proposals for social and economic improvement, published in 1697. From 1697 to 1698, he defended the right of King William III of England|William III to a standing army during disarmament after the Treaty of Ryswick (1697) had ended the Nine Years' War (1688–97). His most successful poem, ''The True-Born Englishman'' (1697), defended the king against the perceived xenophobia of his enemies, satirising the English claim to racial purity. In 1701, Defoe, flanked by a guard of sixteen gentlemen of quality, presented the ''Legion's Memorial'' to the Speaker of the British House of Commons|Speaker of the House of Commons, later his employer, Robert Harley. It demanded the release of the Kentish petitioners, who had asked Parliament to support the king in an imminent war against France. Defoe's pamphleteering and political activities resulted in his arrest and placement in a pillory on July 31, 1703, principally on account of a pamphlet entitled ''The Shortest-Way with the Dissenters; Or, Proposals for the Establishment of the Church'', purporting to argue for their extermination. In it he ruthlessly satirised both the High church Tory|Tories and those English Dissenters|Dissenters who hypocritically practiced so-called "occasional conformity", such as his Stoke Newington neighbour Sir Thomas Abney. However, according to legend, the publication of his poem ''Hymn to the Pillory'' caused his audience at the pillory to throw flowers instead of the customary harmful and noxious objects, and to drink to his health. The historicity of this story, however, is questioned by most scholars, although the scholar J. R. Moore later said that “no man in England but Defoe ever stood in the pillory and later rose to eminence among his fellow men.” Thomas Cochrane, 10th Earl of Dundonald|Thomas Cochrane, the 10th Earl of Dundonald and famous Royal Navy officer, was sentenced to the pillory, but was excused for fear his popularity would cause a riot. The novel has been variously read as an allegory for the development of civilisation, as a manifesto of economic individualism, and as an expression of European colonial desires. But it also shows the importance of repentance and illustrates the strength of Defoe's religious convictions. Early critics, such as Robert Louis Stevenson, admired it, saying that the footprint scene in ''Crusoe'' was one of the four greatest in English literature, and most unforgettable. It has inspired a new genre, the Robinsonade, as works like Johann Wyss's ''The Swiss Family Robinson'' (1812) adapt its basic premise, and has provoked modern postcolonialism|postcolonial responses, including J. M. Coetzee's ''Foe (novel)|Foe'' (1986), and Michel Tournier's ''Vendredi ou les limbes du Pacifique'' (in English, ''Friday'') (1967). Two sequels followed, Defoe's ''Farther Adventures'' (1719) and his ''Serious Reflections'' (1720). Jonathan Swift's ''Gulliver's Travels'' (1726) in part parodies Defoe's adventure novel. Defoe's next novel was ''Captain Singleton'' (1720), a bipartite adventure story whose first half covers a traversal of Africa, and whose second half taps into the contemporary fascination with piracy. It has been commended for its depiction of the homosexual relationship between the eponymous hero and his religious mentor, the Quaker, William Walters. Colonel Jack (1722) follows an orphaned boy from a life of poverty and crime to colonial prosperity, military and marital imbroglios, and religious conversion, always guided by a quaint and misguided notion of becoming a gentleman. Also in 1722, Defoe wrote ''Moll Flanders'', another first-person picaresque novel of the fall and eventual redemption of a lone woman in seventeenth century England. The titular heroine appears as a whore, bigamist and thief, lives in Liberty of the Mint|The Mint, commits adultery and incest, yet manages to keep the reader's sympathy. Moll Flanders and Defoe's final novel ''Roxana: The Fortunate Mistress'' (1724) are examples of the remarkable way in which Defoe seems to inhabit his fictional (yet "drawn from life") characters, not least in that they are women. The latter narrates the moral and spiritual decline of a high society courtesan. A work that is often read as if it were non-fiction is his account of the Great Plague of London in 1665: ''A Journal of the Plague Year'', a complex historical novel published in 1722. In November 1703, a hurricane-like storm hit London, now known as Great Storm of 1703|The Great Storm. (It remains one of the greatest storms in British history.) Yet another of the remarkable events in Defoe's life, the storm was the subject of his book ''1704 in literature#New books|The Storm''. Defoe describes the aftermath of the incident this way: “The streets lay so covered with tiles and slates from the tops of the houses . . that all the tiles in fifty miles round would be able to repair but a small part of it." Later, Defoe also wrote ''Memoirs of a Cavalier'' (1720), set during the Thirty Years War and the English Civil Wars.

Defoe and the Anglo-Scottish Union of 1707

No fewer than 545 titles, ranging from satirical poems, political and religious pamphlets and volumes have been ascribed to Defoe (note: in their ''Critical Bibliography'' (1998), Furbank and Owens argue for the much smaller number of 276 published items). His ambitious business ventures saw him bankrupt by 1692, with a wife and seven children to support. In 1703, he published a satirical pamphlet against the High Tories and in favour of religious tolerance entitled ''The Shortest-Way with the Dissenters; Or, Proposals for the Establishment of the Church''. As has happened with ironical writings before and since, this pamphlet was widely misunderstood, but eventually its author was prosecuted for seditious libel and was sentenced to be pilloried, fined 200 marks, and be detained at the Queen's pleasure. In despair, he wrote to William Paterson (banker)|William Paterson, the London Scot and founder of the Bank of England and part instigator of the Darien scheme, who was in the confidence of Robert Harley, 1st Earl of Oxford and Mortimer, leading Minister and spymaster in the English Government. Harley accepted Defoe's services and released him in 1703. He immediately published ''The Review'', which appeared weekly, then three times a week, written mostly by himself. This was the main mouthpiece of the English Government promoting the Act of Union 1707. Defoe began his campaign in ''The Review'' and other pamphlets aimed at English opinion, claiming that it would end the threat from the north, gaining for the Treasury an "inexhaustible treasury of men", a valuable new market increasing the power of England. By September 1706 Harley ordered Defoe to Edinburgh as a secret agent, to do everything possible to help secure acquiescence in the Treaty. He was very conscious of the risk to himself. Thanks to books such as ''The Letters of Daniel Defoe'' (edited by GH Healey, Oxford 1955), which are readily available, far more is known about his activities than is usual with such agents. His first reports included vivid descriptions of violent demonstrations against the Union. "A Scots rabble is the worst of its kind", he reported. Years later John Clerk of Penicuik, a leading Unionist, wrote in his memoirs that, Defoe, being a Presbyterian who had suffered in England for his convictions, was accepted as an adviser to the General Assembly of the Church of Scotland and committees of the Parliament of Scotland. He told Harley that he was "privy to all their folly", but "Perfectly unsuspected as with corresponding with anybody in England". He was then able to influence the proposals that were put to Parliament and reported back: For Scotland he used different arguments, even the opposite of those he used in England, for example, usually ignoring the English doctrine of the Sovereignty of Parliament, telling the Scots that they could have complete confidence in the guarantees in the Treaty. Some of his pamphlets were purported to be written by Scots, misleading even reputable historians into quoting them as evidence of Scottish opinion of the time. The same is true of a massive history of the Union which Defoe published in 1709 and which some historians still treat as a valuable contemporary source for their own works. Defoe took pains to give his history an air of objectivity by giving some space to arguments against the Union, but always having the last word for himself. He disposed of the main Union opponent, Andrew Fletcher (politician)|Andrew Fletcher of Saltoun, by just ignoring him. Nor does he account for the deviousness of the Duke of Hamilton, the official leader of the various factions opposed to the Union, who seemingly betrayed his former colleagues when he switched to the Unionist/Government side in the decisive final stages of the debate. Defoe made no attempt to explain why the same Parliament of Scotland which was so vehement for its independence from 1703 to 1705 became so supine in 1706. He received very little reward from his paymasters and, of course, no recognition for his services by the government. He made use of his Scottish experience to write his ''Tour thro' the whole Island of Great Britain'', published in 1726, where he actually admitted that the increase of trade and population in Scotland, which he had predicted as a consequence of the Union, was "not the case, but rather the contrary". Defoe's description of Glasgow (Glaschu) as a "Dear Green Place" has often been misquoted as a Scottish Gaelic|Gaelic translation for the town. The Gaelic ''Glas'' could mean grey or green, ''chu'' means dog or hollow. ''Glaschu'' probably actually means 'Green Hollow'. The "Dear Green Place", like much of Scotland, was a hotbed of unrest against the Union. The local St George's-Tron Church, Glasgow|Tron minister of religion|minister urged his congregation "to up and anent for the City of God". The 'Dear Green Place' and "City of God" required government troops to put down the rioters tearing up copies of the Treaty, as at almost every mercat cross in Scotland. When Defoe revisited in the mid 1720s, he claimed that the hostility towards his party was, "because they were English and because of the Union, which they were almost universally exclaimed against".

Works

Novels
- ''Captain Singleton''
- ''Robinson Crusoe''
- ''The Farther Adventures of Robinson Crusoe''
- ''A Journal of the Plague Year''
- ''Memoirs of a Cavalier''
- ''Moll Flanders''
- ''Roxana: The Fortunate Mistress''
- ''Atalantis Major''
- ''The Family Instructor''
- ''The Pirate Gow''
- ''The Storm''
- ''The King of Pirates''
- ''Colonel Jack''Essays
- ''Conjugal Lewdness''
- ''Serious Reflections of Robinson Crusoe''
- ''The Complete English Tradesman''
- ''An Essay Upon Projects'' – first book he published.
- ''An Essay Upon Literature'' – 1726
- ''Mere Nature Delineated'' – 1726Poems
- ''The True-Born Englishman: A Satyr''

References

Bibliography

- Daniel Defoe, ''A General History of the Pyrates'' ISBN 0-486-40488-9 (Dover Publications, 1999) (contains the text on Libertatia, a pirate utopia)
- Daniel Defoe, ''The Storm'' ISBN 0-14-143992-0 Penguin Classics, 2005
- ''A tour thro' the Whole Island of Great Britain'', 1724–1727
- ''Daniel Defoe'', a biography by William Minto for the "English Men of Letters" series.
- ''Trust in Freedom: The Story of Newington Green Unitarian Church 1708–1958'' by Michael Thorncroft. Privately printed for church trustees, 1958.
- Chapter titles: The Fertile Soil; The Church is Built; The Early Years (1714–1758); The Age of Richard Price; New Causes for Old; The Ideal of Service; The Lights Go Out; The Present Day.