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Tajikistan
Tajikistan ( or ; Tajik language|Tajik '''' , Persian language|Persian ''''), officially the '''Republic of Tajikistan''' ( ''''), is a mountainous landlocked country in Central Asia. Afghanistan borders to the south, Uzbekistan to the west, Kyrgyzstan to the north, and People's Republic of China to the east. Tajikistan also lies adjacent to Pakistan but is separated by the narrow Wakhan Corridor. Most of Tajikistan's population belongs to the Tajiks|Tajik ethnic group, who share culture and history with the Iranian peoples and speak the Persian language (officially referred to as Tajiki in Tajikistan). Once part of the Samanid dynasty|Samanid Empire, Tajikistan became a constituent republic of the Soviet Union in the 20th century, known as the Tajik SSR|Tajik Soviet Socialist Republic (Tajik SSR).
After independence, Tajikistan suffered from a devastating Civil war in Tajikistan|civil war which lasted from 1992 to 1997. Since the end of the war, newly-established political stability and foreign aid have allowed the country's economy to grow. Trade in commodities such as cotton and aluminium wire has contributed greatly to this steady improvement, but lack of natural resources (besides hydroelectric power and strategic location) has hampered its economic recovery.[Greenberg, Ilan, "Media Muzzled and Opponents Jailed, Tajikistan Readies for Vote," ''The New York Times'', November 4, 2006 (article dateline November 3, 2006), page A7, New York edition]
EtymologyTajikistan means the "Land of the Tajiks" in Persian language|Persian. Some believe the name Tajik is a geographic reference to the crown (''Taj'') of the Pamir Mountains|Pamir Knot, but this is a folk etymology. The word ''Tajik'' was used to differentiate Iranians from Turks in Central Asia, starting as early as the 10th century. The addition of 'k' might have been for the purpose of euphony in the set phrase ''Turk-o Tajik'' ("Turks and Tajiks") which in Persian-language histories is found as an idiomatic expression meaning "everyone."
According to some other sources, the name Tajik (also spelled Tadjik or Tadzhik) refers to a group of people who are believed to be one of the pure and close descendents of the ancient Aryans. Their country was called Airyanem Vaejah|Aryana Vajeh and the name ''Taa-jyaan'' from which came the word Tajik is mentioned in Avesta|The Avesta. Zoroaster's Gathas were also directed to an Aryan audience and there are several references to this community as being situated in the "home" of the Aryans.
Tajikistan frequently appeared as ''Tadjikistan'' or ''Tadzhikistan'' in English, Romanization of Russian|transliterated from the Russian Таджикистан (in Russian the phoneme /ʤ/ is represented as дж, i.e., ''dzh'' or ''dj''.) Tadzhikistan is the most common alternate spelling and is widely used in English literature derived from Russian sources. Tadjikistan is the spelling in French and can occasionally be found in English language texts. In the Perso-Arabic script, Tajikistan is written تاجیکستان.
Controversy surrounds the correct term used to identify people from Tajikistan. The word ''Tajik'' has been the traditional term used to describe people from Tajikistan and appears widely in literature. But the ethnic politics of Central Asia have made the word Tajik a controversial word, as it implies that Tajikistan is only a nation for ethnic Tajiks and not ethnic Uzbeks, Russians, etc. Likewise, ethnic Tajiks live in other countries, such as China, Uzbekistan and Afghanistan, making the term ambiguous. In addition, elements among the Pamiri people|Pamiri population in Tajikistan's Gorno-Badakhshan Autonomous Province|Gorno-Badakhshan region have at times sought to create an ethnic identity separate from that of the Tajiks.
History
Early history
The territory of what is now Tajikistan has been inhabited continuously since 4000 Anno Domini|BCE. It has been under the rule of various empires throughout history, for the longest period being part of the Persian Empire.
Most of modern Tajikistan had formed parts of ancient Location of the Kamboja Kingdom|Kamboja and Parama Kamboja kingdoms, which find references in the ancient Indian epics like the Mahabharata. Linguistics|Linguistic evidence, combined with ancient literary and inscriptional evidence has led many eminent Indologists to conclude that ancient Kambojas (''an Avestan speaking Iranian tribe'') originally belonged to the ''Ghalcha-speaking area'' of Central Asia. Achariya Yasaka's Nirukta[ Nirukta II.2.] (7th century BCE) attests that verb ''Śavati'' in the sense "to go" was used by only the Kambojas. It has been shown that the modern Ghalcha dialects, ''Valkhi, Shigali, Sriqoli, Jebaka (also called Sanglichi or Ishkashim), Munjani, Yidga and Yaghnobi'', mainly spoken in Pamir languages|Pamirs and countries on the headwaters of the Oxus, still use terms derived from ancient Kamboja ''Śavati'' in the sense "to go".[Linguistic Survey of India, Vol X, pp 456ff, 468, 473, 474, 476, 500, 511, 524 etc; Journal of Royal Asiatic Society of Asia, 1911, pp 801-802, Sir Griersen; India as Known to Panini, 1968, p 49, Dr V. S. Aggarwala; Geographical Data in the Early Puranas, A Critical Study, 1972, p 164, Dr M. R. Singh; Bharata Bhumi aur uske Nivasi, Samvat 1987, pp 297-305, Dr J. C. Vidyalankar; Geographical and Economical Studies in the Mahabharata, Upayana Parva, p 37, Dr Motichandra; Ancient Kamboja, People and the Country, 1981, pp 127-28, 167, 218, Dr J. L. Kamboj; Sindhant Kaumudi Arthaprakashaka, 1966, pp 20-22, Acharya R. R. Pande.] The Yaghnobi language, spoken by the Yaghnobi people|Yaghnobis in the Sughd Province around the headwaters of Zeravshan valley, also still contains a relic ''"Śu"'' from ancient Kamboja ''Śavati'' in the sense "to go".[ Proceedings and Transactions of the ... All-India Oriental Conference, 1930, p 118; Indian Culture, 1934, p 193, Indian Research Institute; Linguistic Survey of India, Vol X, pp 455-56, Dr G. A. Grierson; cf: History and Archeology of India's Contacts with Other Countries from the... , 1976, p 152, Dr Shashi P. Asthana - Social Science; Geographical and Economic Studies in the Mahābhārata: Upāyana Parva, 1945, p 39, Dr Moti Chandra - India; Prācīna Kamboja, jana aura janapada =: Ancient Kamboja, people and country, 1981, p 128, Dr Jiyālāla Kāmboja, Dr Satyavrat Śāstrī - Kamboja (Pakistan).] Further, Sir G Grierson says that the speech of Badakshan was a Ghalcha till about three centuries ago when it was supplanted by a form of Persian language|Persian.[Linguistic Survey of India, X, p. 456, Sir G Grierson; Proceedings and Transactions of the All-India Oriental Conference, 1930, pp 107-108.] Thus, the ancient Kamboja, probably included the Badakshan, Pamirs and northern territories including the Yaghnobi region in the doab of the Oxus and Jaxartes.[Dr J. C. Vidyalankara, Proceedings and Transactions of 6th A.I.O. Conference, 1930, p 118; cf: Linguistic Survey of India, Vol X, pp 455-56, Dr G. A. Grierson.] On the east it was bounded roughly by Yarkent County|Yarkand and/or Kashgar, on the west by Bahlika (Uttaramadra), on the northwest by Sogdiana, on the north by Uttarakuru, on the southeast by Darada, and on the south by Gandhara. Numerous Indologists locate original Kamboja in Pamirs and Badakshan and the Parama Kamboja further north, in the Trans-Pamirian territories comprising Zeravshan valley, north up parts of Sogdhiana/Fargana — in the Sakadvipa or Scythia of the classical writers.[See: The Deeds of Harsha: Being a Cultural Study of Bāṇa's Harshacharita, 1969, p 199, Dr Vasudeva Sharana Agrawala; Proceedings and Transactions of the All-India Oriental Conference, 1930, p 118, Dr J. C. Vidyalankara; Prācīna Kamboja, jana aura janapada =: Ancient Kamboja, people and country, 1981, Dr Jiyālāla Kāmboja, Dr Satyavrat Śāstrī - Kamboja (Pakistan).] Thus, in the pre-Buddhist times (7th–6th century BCE), the parts of modern Tajikistan including territories as far as Zeravshan valley in Sogdiana formed parts of ancient Location of the Kamboja Kingdom|Kamboja and the Parama Kamboja kingdoms when it was ruled by Iranian Kambojas till it became part of Achaemenid Empire.
From the last quarter of fourth century BCE until the first quarter of the second century BCE, it was part of the Bactrian Empire, from whom it was passed on to Scythian Tukharas and hence became part of Tukharistan. Contact with the Chinese Han Dynasty was made in the second century BCE, when envoys were sent to the area of Bactria to explore regions west of China.
Arabs brought Islam in the 7th century Common Era|CE. The Samanids|Samanid Empire Iranians supplanted the Arabs and built the cities of Samarkand and Bukhara, which became the cultural centers of Tajiks (both of which are now in Uzbekistan). The Mongols would later take partial control of Central Asia, and later the land that today comprises Tajikistan became a part of the emirate of Bukhara. A small community of Jews, displaced from the Middle East after the Babylonian captivity, migrated to the region and settled there after 600 BCE, though the majority of the recent Jewish population did not migrate to Tajikistan until the 20th century.
Russian presence
In the 19th century, the Russian Empire began to spread into Central Asia during the Great Game. Between 1864 and 1885 it gradually took control of the entire territory of Russian Turkestan from today's border with Kazakhstan in the north to the Caspian Sea in the west and the border with Afghanistan in the south. Tajikistan was eventually carved out of this territory, which historically had a large Tajiks|Tajik population.
After the Russian Revolution of 1917|overthrow of Imperial Russia in 1917, guerrillas throughout Central Asia, known as ''basmachi'' waged a war against Bolshevik armies in a futile attempt to maintain independence. The Bolsheviks prevailed after a four-year war, in which mosques and villages were burned down and the population heavily suppressed. Soviet authorities started a campaign of secularization, practicing Muslims, Jews, and Christians were persecuted, and mosques, churches, and synagogues were closed.
Soviet Tajikistan
In 1924, the Tajik Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republic was created as a part of Uzbekistan, but in 1929 the Tajik SSR|Tajik Soviet Socialist Republic (Tajik SSR) was made a separate constituent republic. The predominantly ethnic Tajik cities of Samarkand and Bukhara remained in the Uzbek SSR. In terms of living conditions, education and industry Tajikistan was behind the other Republics of the Soviet Union|Soviet Republics. In the 1980s, it had the lowest household saving rate in the USSR,[Boris Rumer, ''Soviet Central Asia: A Tragic Experiment'', Unwin Hyman, London, 1989, p. 126.] the lowest percentage of households in the two top per capita income groups,[''Statistical Yearbook of the USSR 1990'', Goskomstat, Moscow, 1991, p. 115 .] and the lowest rate of university graduates per 1000 people.[''Statistical Yearbook of the USSR 1990'', Goskomstat, Moscow, 1991, p. 210 .] By the late 1980s Tajik nationalists were calling for increased rights. Real disturbances did not occur within the republic until 1990. The following year, the Soviet Union collapsed, and Tajikistan declared its independence.
Post-Independence
The nation almost immediately fell into a civil war that involved various factions fighting one another; these factions were often distinguished by clan loyalties. The non-Muslim population, particularly Russians and Jews, fled the country during this time because of persecution, increased poverty and better economic opportunities in the West or in other former Soviet republics. Emomali Rahmonov came to power in 1992, and continues to rule to this day. However, he has been accused of ethnic cleansing against other ethnicities and groups during the Civil war in Tajikistan. In 1997, a ceasefire was reached between Rahmonov and opposition parties (United Tajik Opposition). Peaceful elections were held in 1999, but they were reported by the opposition as unfair, and Rahmonov was re-elected by almost unanimous vote. Russian troops were stationed in southern Tajikistan, in order to guard the border with Afghanistan, until summer 2005. Since the September 11, 2001, attacks, United States|American, Indian and France|French troops have also been stationed in the country.
In 2008, the harshest winter in a quarter century caused financial losses of 0 million. Russia pledged billion in aid.[Tajikistan loses 0 million from cold winter. Trading Markets.com] Saudi Arabia sent about 10 planes carrying 80 tons of relief and emergency supplies in February and another 11 tons in March.[Tenth Saudi relief plane leaves for Tajikistan. Saudi Embassy]
Politics
- ''See also: Elections in Tajikistan, Human rights in Tajikistan''
Almost immediately after independence, Tajikistan was plunged into a Tajikistan Civil War|civil war that saw various factions, allegedly backed by Russia and Iran, fighting one another. All but 25,000 of the more than 400,000 ethnic Russians, who were mostly employed in industry, fled to Russia. By 1997, the war had cooled down, and a central government began to take form, with peaceful elections in 1999.
"Longtime observers of Tajikistan often characterize the country as profoundly averse to risk and skeptical of promises of reform, a political passivity they trace to the country’s ruinous civil war," Ilan Greenberg wrote in a news article in ''The New York Times'' just before the country's November 2006 presidential election.[
Tajikistan is officially a republic, and holds elections for the List of Presidents of Tajikistan|President and Parliament. The latest parliamentary elections occurred in 2005 (two rounds in February and March), and as all previous elections, international observers believe them to have been corrupt, arousing many accusations from opposition parties that President Emomali Rahmon manipulates the election process.
The latest presidential election held on November 6, 2006 was boycotted by "mainline" opposition parties, including the 23,000-member Islamist Islamic Renaissance Party. Four remaining opponents "all but endorsed the incumbent", Rahmon.][ After November 2006 presidential elections, it is widely speculated that Rahmon has secured his seat for at least another two terms, which will allow him rule till 2020.
Tajikistan to this date is one of the few countries in Central Asia to have included an active opposition in its government. In the Parliament, opposition groups have often clashed with the ruling party, but this has not led to great instability.
Recently Tajikistan gave Iran its support in the membership bid to join the Shanghai Cooperation Organisation, after a meeting with Tajik President and Iranian foreign minister.][Press TV - Iran makes move to join SCO]
Administrative divisions
Tajikistan consists of 4 administrative divisions. These are the provinces (viloyat) of Sughd and Khatlon, the autonomous province of Badakhshan Autonomous Province|Gorno-Badakhshan (abbreviated as GBAO), and the Region of Republican Subordination (RRP – Raiony Respublikanskogo Podchineniya in Romanization of Russian|transliteration from Russian or NTJ – Ноҳияҳои тобеи ҷумҳурӣ in Tajik language|Tajik; formerly known as Karotegin Province). Each region is divided into several districts (, ''nohiya'' or ''raion''), which in turn are subdivided into ''jamoats'' (village-level self-governing units). As of 2006, there were 58 districts and 367 jamoats in Tajikistan.[
The Amu Darya and Panj River|Panj rivers mark the border with Afghanistan, and the glaciers in Tajikistan's mountains are the major source of runoff (water)|runoff for the Aral Sea. There are over 900 rivers in Tajikistan longer than 10 kilometers.
About 1% of the country's area is covered by lakes, the best known of which are the following:
]
- Ghafurov district|Kayrakum (Qairoqqum) Reservoir (Sughd)
- Iskanderkul (Fann Mountains)
- Fann Mountains|Kulikalon (Kul-i Kalon) (Fann Mountains)
- Nurek Dam|Nurek Reservoir (Khatlon)
- Kara-Kul (; eastern Pamir Mountains|Pamir)
- Sarez Lake|Sarez (Pamir Mountains|Pamir)
- Shadau Lake (Pamir Mountains|Pamir)
- Zorkul (Pamir Mountains|Pamir)
Lesser known lakes (all in the Pamir Mountains|Pamir region) include
- Bulunkul
- Drumkul
- Rangkul
- Sasykkul
- Shorkul
- Turumtaikul
- Tuzkul
- Yashilkul
Economy
Tajikistan was the poorest country in Central Asia as well in the former Soviet Union following a civil war after it became independent in 1991. With foreign revenue precariously dependent upon exports of cotton and aluminium, the economy is highly vulnerable to external shocks. In FY 2000, international assistance remained an essential source of support for rehabilitation programs that reintegrated former civil war combatants into the civilian economy, thus helping keep the peace. International assistance also was necessary to address the second year of severe drought that resulted in a continued shortfall of food production. On August 21, 2001, the Red Cross announced that a famine was striking Tajikistan, and called for international aid for Tajikistan and Uzbekistan. Tajikistan's economy grew substantially after the war. The GDP of Tajikistan expanded at an average rate of 9.6 % over the period of 2000–2004 according to the World Bank data. This improved Tajikistan's position among other Central Asian countries (namely Turkmenistan and Uzbekistan), which seem to have degraded economically ever since.[Silk Road Studies, Country Factsheets, Eurasian Narcotics: Tajikistan 2004] However with the increasing assistance from international organizations, such as UNODC, and cooperation with the US, Russian, EU and Afghan authorities a level of progress on fight against illegal drug-trafficking is being achieved.[CIA World Factbook. Tajikistan, transnational issues][Overview of the drug and crime situation in Central Asia. Factsand Figures, Coordination and Analysis Unit of the UNODC Regional Office for Central Asia] Drug money corrupts the country's government; according to some experts the well-known personalities that fought on both sides of the Civil war in Tajikistan|civil war and have held the positions in the government after the armistice was signed are now involved in the drug trade.[ UNODC is working with Tajikistan to strengthen border crossings, provide training, and set up joint interdiction teams. It also helped to establish Tajikistani Drug Control Agency.][Fighting Drugs, Crime and Terrorism in the CIS Dushanbe, 4 October 2007]
Demographics
Tajikistan has a population of 7,215,700 (January 2008 est.). Tajiks who speak the Tajik language (a variety of Persian language|Persian) are the main ethnic group, although there is a sizable minority of Uzbeks and a small population of Russians, whose numbers are declining due to emigration. Pamiri people|Pamiris of Badakhshan are considered to belong to larger group of Tajiks. Likewise, the official language of Tajikistan is the Tajik language, while Russian language|Russian is largely spoken in business and for government purposes. Despite its poverty, Tajikistan has a high rate of literacy with an estimated 98 % of the population having the ability to read and write. Most of the population follows Sunni Islam, although a sizable number of Ismailis are present as well. Bukharian Jews had lived in Tajikistan since the 2nd century BC, but today almost none are left. There is also a small population of Yaghnobi people who have lived in the mountainous district of Sughd Viloyat for many centuries.
The Tajik Ministry of Labor and Social Welfare reported that 104,272 disabled people are registered in Tajikistan (2000). This group of people suffers most from poverty in Tajikistan. The Tajik government and the World Bank considered activities to support this part of the population described in the World Bank's Poverty Reduction Strategy Paper.Culture
Historically, Tajiks and Persians come from very similar stock, speaking variants of the same language and are related as part of the larger group of Iranian peoples. The Tajik language is the mother tongue of around two-thirds of the citizens of Tajikistan. Ancient towns such as Bukhara, Samarkand, Herat, Balkh and Khiva are no longer part of the country. The main urban centers in today's Tajikistan include Dushanbe (the capital), Khujand, Kulob, Panjakent and Istaravshan.
The Pamiri people of Gorno-Badakhshan Autonomous Province in the southeast, bordering Afghanistan and China, though considered part of the Tajiks|Tajik ethnicity, nevertheless are distinct linguistically and culturally from most Tajiks. In contrast to the mostly Sunni Muslim residents of the rest of Tajikistan, the Pamiris overwhelmingly follow the Ismaili sect of Islam, and speak a number of Eastern Iranian languages, including Shughni, Rushani language|Rushani, Khufi language|Khufi and Wakhi. Isolated in the highest parts of the Pamir Mountains, they have preserved many ancient cultural traditions and folk arts that have been largely lost elsewhere in the country.
The Yaghnobi people live in mountainous areas of northern Tajikistan. The estimated number of Yaghnobis is now about 25,000. Forced migrations in the 20th century decimated their numbers. They speak the Yaghnobi language, which is the only direct modern descendant of the ancient Sogdian language.
Sport
Tajikstan's mountains provide many opportunities for outdoor sports, such as hill walking, mountain biking, and more challenging mountain climbing. Facilities are limited so tourists need to be largely self sufficient and plan carefully. Mountain climbing tours to the Fann Mountains and the Pamir Mountains|Pamirs, including the 7,000 m peaks in the region, are seasonally organized by local and international alpine agencies.
Football is a popular sport. The Tajikistan national football team competes in the FIFA and AFC leagues. It also hosts many football clubs.
Transport
See also
- 2006 Tajikistan earthquake
- Agriculture in Tajikistan
- Central Asian Union
- Communications in Tajikistan
- Dushanbe synagogue
- Foreign relations of Tajikistan
- Ittihodi Scouthoi Tojikiston
- List of cities in Tajikistan
- Military of Tajikistan
- Transport in Tajikistan
- Mount Imeon
- Kingdom of Balhara
References and footnotes
Further reading
- ''Historical Dictionary of Tajikistan'' by Kamoludin Abdullaev and Shahram Akbarzadeh
- ''Land Beyond the River: The Untold Story of Central Asia'' by Monica Whitlock
- ''Tajikistan: Disintegration or Reconciliation'' by Shirin Akiner
- ''Tajikistan: The Trials of Independence'' by Shirin Akiner, Mohammad-Reza Djalili and Frederic Grare
- ''Tajikistan and the High Pamirs'' by Robert Middleton, Huw Thomas and Markus Hauser, Odyssey Books, Hongkong 2008 (ISBN 978-9-622177-73-4)
- ''Northern Tajikistan - Tourist Map of Sughd with adjacent areas of Uzbekistan and Kyrgyzstan, Scale: 1:500'000.'' Verlag „Gecko-Maps“, Switzerland 2008 (ISBN 978-3-906593-45-6)
- ''Southern Tajikistan - Tourist Map of Khatlon and Direct Rule Districts with adjacent areas of Uzbekistan and Afghanistan, Scale: 1:500'000.'' Verlag „Gecko-Maps“, Switzerland 2008 (ISBN 978-3-906593-46-3)
- ''The Pamirs. 1:500.000 – A tourist map of Gorno-Badkshan-Tajikistan and background information on the region.'' Verlag „Gecko-Maps“, Switzerland 2004 (ISBN 3-906593-35-5)
External links
- The President of Tajikistan
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- Tajikistan at ''UCB Libraries GovPubs''
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Category:Tajikistan|
Category:Landlocked countries
Category:Persian-speaking countries and territories
Category:Russian-speaking countries and territories
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be-x-old:Таджыкістан
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Related Images- Tajik children
- Tajik family celebrating Eid.
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