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Ceramic

Introduction

Ceramic, which is derived from the Greek language|Greek word κεραμικός (''keramikos'') meaning pottery and related to the older Sanskrit root "to burn",Hans Thurnauer: "Ceramics"; in: "Dielectric Materials and Applications", edited by A. R. von Hippel, published jointly by The Technology Press of M.I.T. and John Wiley & Sons, 1954 covers inorganic and non-metallic materials which are formed by the action of heat. Up until the 1950s or so, the most important of these were the traditional clays, made into pottery, bricks, tiles and the like, along with cements and glass. Clay-based ceramics are described in the article on pottery. A composite material of ceramic and metal is known as cermet. The word ''ceramic'' can be an adjective, and can also be used as a noun to refer to a ceramic material, or a product of ceramic manufacture. ''Ceramics'' may also be used as a singular noun referring to the art of making things out of ceramic materials. The technology of manufacturing and usage of ceramic materials is part of the field of ceramic engineering. Many ceramic materials are hard, porous, and brittle. The study and development of ceramics includes methods to mitigate problems associated with these characteristics, and to accentuate the strengths of the materials as well as to investigate novel applications. The American Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM) defines a ceramic article as “''an article having a glazed or unglazed body of crystalline or partly crystalline structure, or of glass, which body is produced from essentially inorganic, non-metallic substances and either is formed from a molten mass which solidifies on cooling, or is formed and simultaneously or subsequently matured by the action of the heat''.”Ceramic Tile and Stone Standards

Types of ceramic products

For convenience ceramic products are usually divided into four sectors, and these are shown below with some examples:
- ''Structural'', including bricks, pipe (material)|pipes, floor and roof tiles
- ''refractory|Refractories'', such as kiln linings, gas fire radiants, steel and glass making crucibles
- ''Pottery'', including tableware, wall tiles, decorative art objects and sanitary ware
- ''Technical'', is also known as Engineering, Advanced, Special, and in Japan, Fine Ceramics. Such items include tiles used in the Space Shuttle program, gas burner nozzles, Ballistic vest|ballistic protection, nuclear fuel uranium oxide pellets, Implant (medicine)|bio-medical implants, jet engine turbine blades, and missile nose cones. Frequently the raw materials do not include clays.

Types of pottery

- Bone china, with the addition of ground animal bone
- Earthenware, which is often made from clay, quartz and feldspar.
- Porcelain, which is classically from kaolin
- Stoneware

Classification of technical ceramics

Technical ceramics can also be classified into three distinct material categories:
- Oxides: Silica, Alumina, Zirconia
- Non-oxides: Carbides, Borides, Nitrides, Silicides
- Mixture|Composites: Particulate or whisker reinforced matrices, combinations of oxides and non-oxides (e.g. polymers). Each one of these classes can develop unique physical properties.

Examples of technical ceramics

- Barium titanate (often mixed with strontium titanate) displays ferroelectricity, meaning that its mechanical, electrical, and thermal responses are coupled to one another and also history-dependent. It is widely used in electromechanics|electromechanical transducers, ceramic capacitors, and Ferroelectric RAM|data storage elements. crystallite|Grain boundary conditions can create positive temperature coefficient|PTC effects in heating elements.
- Bismuth strontium calcium copper oxide, a high-temperature superconductor
- Boron nitride is structurally isoelectronic to carbon and takes on similar physical forms: a graphite-like one used as a lubricant, and a diamond-like one used as an abrasive.
- ferrite (magnet)|Ferrite (iron|Fe₃O₄), which is ferrimagnetism|ferrimagnetic and is used in the magnetic cores of electrical transformers and magnetic core memory.
- Lead zirconate titanate is another ferroelectric material.
- Magnesium diboride (magnesium|MgB₂), which is an unconventional superconductor.
- Sialons / Silicon Aluminium Oxynitrides, high strength, high thermal shock / chemical / wear resistance, low density ceramics used in non-ferrous molten metal handling, weld pins and the chemical industry.
- Silicon carbide (silicon|SiC), which is used as a susceptor in microwave furnaces, a commonly used abrasive, and as a refraction (metallurgy)|refractory material.
- Silicon nitride (Si₃nitrogen|N₄), which is used as an abrasive powder.
- Steatite (magnesium silicates) is used as an electrical insulator.
- Titanium Carbide Used in space shuttle re-entry shields and scratchproof watches.
- Uranium oxide (uranium|UO₂), used as nuclear fuel|fuel in nuclear reactors.
- Yttrium barium copper oxide (Ybarium|Ba₂copper|Cu₃oxygen|O_7-x), another high temperature Superconductivity|superconductor.
- Zinc oxide (zinc|ZnO), which is a semiconductor, and used in the construction of varistors.
- Zirconium dioxide (zirconia), which in pure form undergoes many phase changes between room temperature and practical sintering temperatures, can be chemically "stabilized" in several different forms. Its high oxygen ion conductivity recommends it for use in fuel cells. In another variant, metastable structures can impart transformation toughening for mechanical applications; most ceramic knife blades are made of this material.

Structure and Properties

The central message of any Solid State Chemistry (or Materials Science and Engineering) program is that the physical properties of any substance are a direct result of its crystalline structure and chemical composition. One major objective of these fields is to emphasize the fundamental connection between microstructure and properties using the methods best suited for such an approach. E.G. Localized density variations, grain size distribution, type of porosity and second-phase content have all been correlated with ceramic properties such as mechanical strength σ by the Hall-Petch equation, hardness, toughness, dielectric constant, and optical transparency. Thus the reader may find a specific focus on the central microstructural features within a given ceramic that are most closely identified with its chemical and physical properties. Physical properties of chemical compounds which provide conclusive evidence of chemical composition include odor, color, volume, density (mass / volume), melting point, boiling point, heat capacity, physical form @ room temp. (solid, liquid or gas), hardness, porosity, and index of refraction. Ceramography is the art and science of preparation, examination and evaluation of ceramic microstructures. Evaluation and characterization of ceramic microstructures is often implemented on similar spatial scales to that used commonly in the emerging field of nanotechnolgy: from tens of angstroms (A) to tens of microns (µm). This is typically somewhere between the minimum wavelength of visible light and the resolution limit of the naked eye. The microstructure includes most grains, secondary phases, grain boundaries, pores, micro-cracks, structural defects and hardness microindentions. Most bulk mechanical, optical, thermal, electrical and magnetic properties are significantly affected by the observed microstructure. The fabrication method and process conditions are generally indicated by the microstructure. The root cause of many ceramic failures is evident in the cleaved and polished microstructure. Physical properties which constitute the emerging field of Materials Science and Engineering include the following:

Properties of ceramics

Mechanical properties

Mechanical properties are important in structural and building materials as well as textile fabrics. They include the many properties used to describe the strength of materials such as: elasticity / plasticity, tensile strength, compressive strength, shear strength, fracture toughness & ductility (low in brittle materials), and indentation hardness. Fracture mechanics is the field of mechanics concerned with the study of the formation and subsequent propagation of microcracks in materials. It uses methods of analytical solid mechanics to calculate the thermodynamic driving force on a crack and the methods of experimental solid mechanics to characterize the material's resistance to fracture and catastrophic failure. In modern materials science, fracture mechanics is an important tool in improving the mechanical performance of materials and components. It applies the physics of stress and strain, in particular the theories of elasticity and plasticity, to the microscopic crystallographic defects found in real materials in order to predict the macroscopic mechanical failure of bodies. Fractography is widely used with fracture mechanics to understand the causes of failures and also verify the theoretical failure predictions with real life failures. Thus, since cracks and other microstructural defects can lower the strength of a structure beyond that which might be predicted by the theory of crystlline objects, a different property of tee material -- above and beyond conventional strength -- is needed to describe the fracture resistance of engineering materials. This is the reason for the need for fracture mechanic: the evaluation of the strength of flawed structures. In this context, Fracture toughness is a property which describes the ability of a material containing a crack to resist fracture, and is one of the most important properties of any material for virtually all design applications. Fracture toughness is a quantitative way of expressing a material's resistance to brittle fracture when a crack is present. If a material has a large value of fracture toughness it will probably undergo ductile fracture. Brittle fracture is very characteristic of materials with a low fracture toughness value. Fracture mechanics, which leads to the concept of fracture toughness, was largely based on the work of A. A. Griffith who, amongst other things, studied the behaviour of cracks in brittle materials. Ceramic materials are usually ionic bond|ionic or covalent bonded materials, and can be crystalline or amorphous solid|amorphous. A material held together by either type of bond will tend to Fracture#Brittle fracture|fracture before any plastic deformation takes place, which results in poor toughness in these materials. Additionally, because these materials tend to be porous, the porosity|pores and other microscopic imperfections act as Stress concentration|stress concentrators, decreasing the toughness further, and reducing the tensile strength. These combine to give catastrophic failures, as opposed to the normally much more gentle failure modes of metals. These materials do show plasticity (physics)|plastic deformation. However, due to the rigid structure of the crystalline materials, there are very few available slip systems for dislocations to move, and so they deform very slowly. With the non-crystalline (glassy) materials, Viscosity|viscous flow is the dominant source of plastic deformation, and is also very slow. It is therefore neglected in many applications of ceramic materials.

Electrical properties

Semiconductors

There are a number of ceramics that are semiconductors. Most of these are transition metal oxides that are II-VI semiconductors, such as zinc oxide. While there is talk of making blue LEDs from zinc oxide, ceramicists are most interested in the electrical properties that show grain boundary effects. One of the most widely used of these is the varistor. These are devices that exhibit the property that resistance drops sharply at a certain threshold voltage. Once the voltage across the device reaches the threshold, there is a Electrical breakdown|breakdown of the electrical structure in the vicinity of the grain boundary|grain boundaries, which results in its electrical resistance dropping from several megohms down to a few hundred Ohm (unit)|ohms. The major advantage of these is that they can dissipate a lot of energy, and they self reset — after the voltage across the device drops below the threshold, its resistance returns to being high. This makes them ideal for Surge protector|surge-protection applications. As there is control over the threshold voltage and energy tolerance, they find use in all sorts of applications. The best demonstration of their ability can be found in electrical substations, where they are employed to protect the infrastructure from lightning strikes. They have rapid response, are low maintenance, and do not appreciably degrade from use, making them virtually ideal devices for this application. Semiconducting ceramics are also employed as gas sensors. When various gases are passed over a polycrystalline ceramic, its electrical resistance changes. With tuning to the possible gas mixtures, very inexpensive devices can be produced.

Superconductivity

Under some conditions, such as extremely low temperature, some ceramics exhibit high temperature superconductivity. The exact reason for this is not known, but there are two major families of superconducting ceramics.

Ferroelectricity and supersets

Piezoelectricity, a link between electrical and mechanical response, is exhibited by a large number of ceramic materials, including the quartz used to crystal oscillator|measure time in watches and other electronics. Such devices use both properties of piezoelectrics, using electricity to produce a mechanical motion (powering the device) and then using this mechanical motion to produce electricity (generating a signal). The unit of time measured is the natural interval required for electricity to be converted into mechanical energy and back again. The piezoelectric effect is generally stronger in materials that also exhibit pyroelectricity, and all pyroelectric materials are also piezoelectric. These materials can be used to inter convert between thermal, mechanical, and/or electrical energy; for instance, after synthesis in a furnace, a pyroelectric crystal allowed to cool under no applied stress generally builds up a static charge of thousands of volts. Such materials are used in motion sensors, where the tiny rise in temperature from a warm body entering the room is enough to produce a measurable voltage in the crystal. In turn, pyroelectricity is seen most strongly in materials which also display the ferroelectric effect, in which a stable electric dipole can be oriented or reversed by applying an electrostatic field. Pyroelectricity is also a necessary consequence of ferroelectricity. This can be used to store information in ferroelectric capacitors, elements of ferroelectric RAM. The most common such materials are lead zirconate titanate and barium titanate. Aside from the uses mentioned above, their strong piezoelectric response is exploited in the design of high-frequency loudspeakers, transducers for sonar, and actuators for atomic force microscope|atomic force and scanning tunneling microscopes.

Positive thermal coefficient

Increases in temperature can cause grain boundaries to suddenly become insulating in some semiconducting ceramic materials, mostly mixtures of heavy metals|heavy metal titanates. The critical transition temperature can be adjusted over a wide range by variations in chemistry. In such materials, current will pass through the material until joule heating brings it to the transition temperature, at which point the circuit will be broken and current flow will cease. Such ceramics are used as self-controlled heating elements in, for example, the rear-window defrost circuits of automobiles. At the transition temperature, the material's dielectric response becomes theoretically infinite. While a lack of temperature control would rule out any practical use of the material near its critical temperature, the dielectric effect remains exceptionally strong even at much higher temperatures. Titanates with critical temperatures far below room temperature have become synonymous with "ceramic" in the context of ceramic capacitors for just this reason.

Optical and Far-Infrared properties

Optically transparent materials focus on the response of a material to incoming lightwaves of a range of wavelengths. Frequency selective optical filters can be utilized to alter or enhance the brightness and contrast of a digital image. Guided lightwave transmission via frequency selective waveguides involves the emerging field of fiber optics and the ability of certain glassy compositions as a transmission medium for a range of frequencies simultaneously (multi-mode optical fiber) with little or no interference between competing wavelengths or frequencies. This resonant mode of energy & data transmission via electromagnetic (light) wave propagation, though low powered, is virtually lossless. Optical waveguides are used as components in Integrated optical circuits (e.g. light-emitting diodes, LED's) or as the transmission medium in local and long haul optical communication systems. Also of value to the emerging materials scientist is the sensitivity of materials to radiation in the thermal infrared (IR) portion of the electromagnetic spectrum. This heat-seeking ability is responsible for such diverse optical phenomena as Night-vision and IR luminescence. Thus, there is an increasing need in the military sector for high-strength, robust materials which have the capability to transmit light (electromagnetic waves) in the visible (0.2 – 0.8 micron) and mid-Infrared (1 – 5 microns) regions of the spectrum. These materials are needed for applications requiring transparent armor, including next-generation high-speed missiles and pods, as well as protection against improves explosive devices (IED). In the 1960s, scientists at General Electric (GE) discovered that under the right manufacturing conditions, some ceramics, especially aluminum oxide (aka: alumina or sapphire), could be made translucent. These translucent materials were transparent enough to be used for containing the electrical plasma generated in high-pressure sodium street lamps. During the past two decades, additional types of transparent ceramics have been developed for applications such as nose cones for heat-seeking missiles, windows for fighter aircraft, and scintillation counters for computed tomography scanners. In the early 1970s, during the first part of a 33-year career at GE, Livermore physical chemist Thomas Soules pioneered computer modeling of light transmission through translucent ceramic alumina. His model showed that microscopic pores in ceramic, mainly trapped at the junctions of microcrystalline grains, caused light to scatter and prevented true transparency. The volume fraction of these microscopic pores had to be less than 1% for high-quality optical transmission. I.E. the density had to be 99.99 percent of the theoretical crystalline density. This is basically a particle size effect. Opacity results from the incoherent scattering of light at surfaces and interfaces. In addition to pores, most of the interfaces in a typical metal or ceramic object are in the form of [[grain boundaries[[ which separate tiny regions of crystalline order. When the size of the scattering center (or grain boundary) is reduced below the size of the wavelength of the light being scattered, the scattering no longer occurs to any significant extent. In the formation of polycrystalline materials (metals and ceramics) the size of the crystalline grains is determined largely by the size of the crystalline particles present in the raw material during formation (or pressing) of the object. Moreover, the size of the grain boundaries scales directly with particle size. Thus a reduction of the original particle size below the wavelength of visible light (~ 0.3 microns for shortwave violet) eliminates any light scattering, resulting in a transparent material. Recently, Japanese scientists have developed techniques to produce ceramic parts that rival the transparency of traditional crystals (grown from a single seed) and exceed the fracture toughness of a single crystal. In particular, scientists at the Japanese firm Konoshima Ltd., a producer of ceramic construction materials and industrial chemicals, have been looking for markets for their transparent ceramics. Livermore researchers realized that these ceramics might greatly benefit high-powered lasers used in the National Ignition Facility (NIF) Programs Directorate. In particular, a Livermore research team began to acquire advanced transparent ceramics from Konoshima to determine if they could meet the optical requirements needed for Livermore’s Solid-State Heat Capacity Laser (SSHCL). Livermore researchers have also been testing applications of these materials for applications such as advanced drivers for laser-driven fusion power plants.

Other applications of ceramics

- Ceramics are used in the manufacture of knives. The blade of the ceramic knife will stay sharp for much longer than that of a steel knife, although it is more brittle and can be snapped by dropping it on a hard surface.
- Ceramics such as alumina and boron carbide have been used in bulletproof vest|ballistic armored vests to repel large-caliber rifle fire. Such plates are known commonly as small-arms protective inserts (SAPI). Similar material is used to protect Cockpit (aviation)|cockpits of some military airplanes, because of the low weight of the material.
- Ceramic balls can be used to replace steel in ball bearings. Their higher hardness means that they are much less susceptible to wear and can offer more than triple lifetimes. They also deform less under load meaning they have less contact with the bearing retainer walls and can roll faster. In very high speed applications, heat from friction during rolling can cause problems for metal bearings; problems which are reduced by the use of ceramics. Ceramics are also more chemically resistant and can be used in wet environments where steel bearings would rust. The major drawback to using ceramics is a significantly higher cost. In many cases their electrically insulating properties may also be valuable in bearings.
- In the early 1980s, Toyota researched production of an adiabatic ceramic engine which can run at a temperature of over 6000 °F (3300 °C). Ceramic engines do not require a cooling system and hence allow a major weight reduction and therefore greater fuel efficiency. Fuel efficiency of the engine is also higher at high temperature, as shown by Carnot heat engine|Carnot's theorem. In a conventional metallic engine, much of the energy released from the fuel must be dissipated as waste heat in order to prevent a meltdown of the metallic parts. Despite all of these desirable properties, such engines are not in production because the manufacturing of ceramic parts in the requisite precision and durability is difficult. Imperfection in the ceramic leads to cracks, which can lead to potentially dangerous equipment failure. Such engines are possible in laboratory settings, but mass-production is not feasible with current technology.
- Work is being done in developing ceramic parts for gas turbine heat engine|engines. Currently, even blades made of superalloy|advanced metal alloys used in the engines' hot section require cooling and careful limiting of operating temperatures. Turbine engines made with ceramics could operate more efficiently, giving aircraft greater range and payload for a set amount of fuel.
- Recently, there have been advances in ceramics which include bio-ceramics, such as dental implants and synthetic bones. Hydroxyapatite, the natural mineral component of bone, has been made synthetically from a number of biological and chemical sources and can be formed into ceramic materials. Orthopedic implants made from these materials bond readily to bone and other tissues in the body without rejection or inflammatory reactions. Because of this, they are of great interest for gene delivery and tissue engineering scaffolds. Most hydroxy apatite ceramics are very porous and lack mechanical strength and are used to coat metal orthopedic devices to aid in forming a bond to bone or as bone fillers. They are also used as fillers for orthopedic plastic screws to aid in reducing the inflammation and increase absorption of these plastic materials. Work is being done to make strong, fully dense nano crystalline hydroxapatite ceramic materials for orthopedic weight bearing devices, replacing foreign metal and plastic orthopedic materials with a synthetic, but naturally occurring, bone mineral. Ultimately these ceramic materials may be used as bone replacements or with the incorporation of protein collagens, synthetic bones.
- High-tech ceramic is used in watchmaking for producing watch cases. The material is valued by watchmakers for its light weight, scratch-resistance, durability and smooth touch. IWC is one of the brands that initiated the use of ceramic in watchmaking. The case of the IWC 2007 Top Gun edition of the Pilot's Watch Double chronograph is crafted in high-tech black ceramic.Ceramic in Watchmaking

Classification of ceramics

Non-crystalline ceramics: Non-crystalline ceramics, being glasses, tend to be formed from melts. The glass is shaped when either fully molten, by casting, or when in a state of toffee-like viscosity, by methods such as blowing to a mold. If later heat-treatments cause this class to become partly crystalline, the resulting material is known as a glass-ceramic.
Crystalline ceramics: Crystalline ceramic materials are not amenable to a great range of processing. Methods for dealing with them tend to fall into one of two categories - either make the ceramic in the desired shape, by reaction in situ, or by "forming" powders into the desired shape, and then sintering to form a solid body. Ceramic forming techniques include shaping by hand (sometimes including a rotation process called "throwing"), Slipcasting|slip casting, tape casting (used for making very thin ceramic capacitors, etc.), injection molding, dry pressing, and other variations. (See also Ceramic forming techniques. Details of these processes are described in the two books listed below.) A few methods use a hybrid between the two approaches.

Processing of ceramics

Chemical processing

In the processing of fine ceramics, the irregular particle sizes and shapes in a typical powder often lead to non-uniform packing morphologies that result in packing density variations in the powder compact. Uncontrolled agglomeration of powders due to attractive van der Waals forces can also give rise to in microstructural inhomogeneities. Differential stresses that develop as a result of non-uniform drying shrinkage are directly related to the rate at which the solvent can be removed, and thus highly dependent upon the distribution of porosity. Such stresses have been associated with a plastic-to-brittle transition in consolidated bodies, and can yield to crack propagation in the unfired body if not relieved. In addition, any fluctuations in packing density in the compact as it is prepared for the kiln are often amplified during the sintering process, yielding inhomogeneous densification. Some pores and other defects associated with density variations have been shown to play a detrimental role in the sintering process by growing and thus limiting end-point densities. Differential stresses arising from inhomogeneous densification have also been shown to result in the propagation of internal cracks, thus becoming the strength-controlling flaws. It would therefore appear desirable to process a material in such a way that it is physically uniform with regard to the distribution of components and porosity, rather than using particle size distributions which will maximize the green density. The containment of a uniformly dispersed assembly of strongly interacting particles in suspension requires total control over particle-particle interactions. Monosized colloids provide this potential. Monodisperse powders of colloidal silica, for example, may therefore be stabilized sufficiently to ensure a high degree of order in the colloidal crystal or polycrystalline colloidal solid which results from aggregation. The degree of order appears to be limited by the time and space allowed for longer-range correlations to be established. Such defective polycrystalline colloidal structures would appear to be the basic elements of submicron colloidal materials science, and, therefore, provide the first step in developing a more rigorous understanding of the mechanisms involved in microstructural evolution in inorganic systems such as polycrystalline ceramics.

In situ manufacturing

The most common use of this method is in the production of cement and concrete. Here, the dehydrated powders are mixed with water. This starts hydration reactions, which result in long, interlocking crystals forming around the aggregates. Over time, these result in a solid ceramic. The biggest problem with this method is that most reactions are so fast that good mixing is not possible, which tends to prevent large-scale construction. However, small-scale systems can be made by deposition techniques, where the various materials are introduced above a substrate, and react and form the ceramic on the substrate. This borrows techniques from the semiconductor industry, such as Chemical vapor deposition|chemical vapour deposition, and is very useful for coatings. These tend to produce very dense ceramics, but do so slowly.

Sintering-based methods

The principles of sintering-based methods is simple. Once a roughly held together object (called a "green body") is made, it is baked in a kiln, where diffusion processes cause the green body to shrink. The pores in the object close up, resulting in a denser, stronger product. The firing is done at a temperature below the melting point of the ceramic. There is virtually always some porosity left, but the real advantage of this method is that the green body can be produced in any way imaginable, and still be sintered. This makes it a very versatile route. There are thousands of possible refinements of this process. Some of the most common involve pressing the green body to give the densification a head start and reduce the sintering time needed. Sometimes organic binder (material)|binders such as polyvinyl alcohol are added to hold the green body together; these burn out during the firing (at 200–350°C). Sometimes organic lubricants are added during pressing to increase densification. It is not uncommon to combine these, and add binders and lubricants to a powder, then press. (The formulation of these organic chemical additives is an art in itself. This is particularly important in the manufacture of high performance ceramics such as those used by the billions for electronics, in capacitors, inductors, sensors, etc. The specialized formulations most commonly used in electronics are detailed in the book "Tape Casting," by R.E. Mistler, et al., Amer. Ceramic Soc. Ohio, 2000.) A comprehensive book on the subject, for mechanical as well as electronics applications, is "Organic Additives and Ceramic Processing," by D. J. Shanefield, Kluwer Publishers Boston, 1996. A slurry can be used in place of a powder, and then cast into a desired shape, dried and then sintered. Indeed, traditional pottery is done with this type of method, using a plastic mixture worked with the hands. If a mixture of different materials is used together in a ceramic, the sintering temperature is sometimes above the melting point of one minor component - a ''liquid phase'' sintering. This results in shorter sintering times compared to solid state sintering.

References

- Greskovich, G., et al., ( General Electric R & D ), ''Polycrystalline Ceramic Lasers'', J. Appl. Phys., Vol. 44, p. 4599 (1973)
- Yoldas, B.E. ( Westinghouse R & D ), ''Monolithic Glass Formation by Chemical Polymerization'', J. Mater. Sci., Vol.10, p.1856 ( 1975 ), ''Deposition and Properties of Optical Oxide Coatings from Polymerized Solutions'', Applied Optics, Vol. 21, p.2960 ( 1982 ), ''An Aqueous Sol–Gel Route to Prepare Transparent Hybrid Materials'', J. Mater. Chem., Vol. 17, p.4430 ( 2007 )
- Ikesue, A., et al., ''Fabrication and Optical Properties of High Performance Polycrystalline Ceramics of Solid State Lasers'', J. Am. Ceram. Soc, Vol. 78, p. 1033 (1995), ''Polycrystalline Lasers'', Optical Materials, Vol. 19, p.183 (2002)
- Tachiwaki, T., et al., ''Novel Synthesis of YAG leading to Transparent Ceramics'', Solid State Communications, Vol. 119, p. 603 (2001)
- Rabinovitch, Y., et al., ''Transparent Polycrystalline Neodymium-Doped YAG'', Optical Materials, Vol.24, p.345 (2003)
- Wen, L.,et al., ''Synthesis of Nanocrystalline Yttria Powder and Fabrication of Transparent YAG Ceramics'', J. European Ceramic Soc., Vol. 24, p. 2681, (2004)
- Pradhan, A.K., et al., ''Synthesis of Neodymium-doped YAG Nanocrystlalline Powders Leading to Transparent Ceramics'', Materials Research Bulletin, Vol. 39, p. 1291 (2004)
- Jiang, H., et al., ''Transparent Electro-Optic Ceramics and Devices'', Proc. SPIE, Vol. 5644, p.380 (2005), www.bostonati.com/whitepapers/SPIE04paper.pdf
- Huie, J.C. and Gentilman, R., ''Characterization of Transparent Polycrystalline YAG Fabricated from Nanopowders'', Window and Dome Technologies and Materials IX, Proc. SPIE, Vol. 5786, p.251 (2005)
- Barnakov, Yu. A., et al., ''Simple Route to Nd:YAG Transparent Ceramics'', Materials Research Bulletin, Vol. 35, p. 238 (2006) http://arxiv.org/ftp/cond-mat/papers/0604/0604531.pdf
- Barnakov, Y.A., et al., ''The Progress Towards Transparent Ceramics Fabrication'', Proc. SPIE, Vol. 6552, p.111 (2007)
- Yamashita, I., et al., ''Transparent Ceramics'', J. Am. Ceram. Soc., Vol. 91, p.813 (2008)

External links

- Advanced Ceramics – The Evolution, Classification, Properties, Production, Firing, Finishing and Design of Advanced Ceramics
- How pottery is made
- How sanitaryware is made
- World renowned ceramics collections at Stoke-on-Trent Museum Click on '''Quick Links''' in the right-hand column to view examples.
- The Gardiner Museum - The only museum in Canada entirely devoted to ceramics.
- Introduction, Scientific Principles, Properties and Processing of Ceramics
- The American Ceramic Society The American Ceramic Society
- CERAM Research Ltd (Formerly The British Ceramic Research Association)
- Worldwide Ceramics Directory Category:Ceramic materials| Category:dielectrics simple:Ceramic

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