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Boudica

Boudica (also spelled '''Boudicca''', formerly known as '''Boadicea''', and known in Welsh language|Welsh as "Buddug") (d. AD 60 or 61) was a queen of the Iceni tribe of what is now known as East Anglia in England, who led an uprising of the tribes against the occupying forces of the Roman Empire. Boudica's husband, Prasutagus, an Icenian king who had ruled as a nominally independent ally of Rome, left his kingdom jointly to his daughters and the Roman Emperor in his will. However, when he died his will was ignored, possibly because the Romans, unlike the Britons, did not recognise daughters as heirs. The kingdom was annexed as if conquered, Boudica was flogged and her daughters raped, and Roman financiers called in their loans. In AD 60 or 61, while the Roman governor, Gaius Suetonius Paulinus, was leading a campaign on the island of Anglesey in north Wales, Boudica led the Iceni, along with the Trinovantes and others, in revolt. They destroyed Camulodunum (Colchester), formerly the capital of the Trinovantes, but now a ''Colonia (Roman)|colonia'' (a settlement for discharged Roman soldiers) and the site of a temple to the former emperor Claudius, built and maintained at local expense, and routed a Roman legion, the Legio IX Hispana|IX ''Hispana'', sent to relieve the settlement. On hearing the news of the revolt, Suetonius hurried to Londinium (London), the twenty-year-old commercial settlement which was the rebels' next target, but concluding he did not have the numbers to defend it, evacuated and abandoned it. It was burnt to the ground, as was Verulamium (St Albans). An estimated 70,000-80,000 people were killed in the three cities. Suetonius, meanwhile, regrouped his forces in the West Midlands (region)|West Midlands, and despite being heavily outnumbered, defeated Boudica in the Battle of Watling Street. The crisis had led the emperor Nero to consider withdrawing all Roman forces from the island, but Suetonius's eventual victory over Boudica secured Roman control of the province. The history of these events, as recorded by TacitusTacitus, ''Agricola (book)|Agricola'' Wikisource:Agricola#14|14-16; ''Annals (Tacitus)|Annals'' 14:29-39 and Cassius Dio,Cassius Dio, ''Roman History'' 62:1-12 were rediscovered during the Renaissance and led to a resurgence of Boudica's legendary fame during the Victorian era, when Victoria of the United Kingdom|Queen Victoria was portrayed as her "namesake". Boudica has since remained an important cultural symbol in the United Kingdom. Ironically the absence of native British literature during the early part of the first millennium means that Britain owes its knowledge of Boudica's rebellion to the writings of the Romans.

History

Boudica's name

Until the late twentieth century, Boudica was known as Boadicea, which is probably derived from a mistranscription when a manuscript of Tacitus was copied in the Middle Ages. Her name takes many forms in various manuscripts–''Boadicea'' and ''Boudicea'' in Tacitus; ''Βουδουικα'', ''Βουνδουικα'', and ''Βοδουικα'' in Dio–but almost certainly, it was originally ''Boudicca'' or ''Boudica'', and is the Proto-Celtic feminine adjective ''*boudīka'', '''''victorious''''', derived from the Celtic languages|Celtic word ''*bouda'', ''victory'' (cf. Irish language|Irish ''bua'' (Classical Irish ''buadh''), ''Buaidheach'', Welsh language|Welsh ''buddugoliaeth''). The name is attested in inscriptions as "Boudica" in Lusitania, "Boudiga" in Bordeaux, and "Bodicca" in Britain.Graham Webster, ''Boudica: The British Revolt against Rome AD 60'', 1978; Guy de la Bédoyère, ''The Roman Army in Britain'', retrieved 5 July 2005 Based on later development of Welsh language|Welsh and Irish language|Irish, Kenneth H. Jackson|Kenneth Jackson concludes that the correct spelling of the name in Brythonic languages|Brythonic is ''Boudica'', Kenneth H. Jackson|Kenneth Jackson, "Queen Boudicca?", ''Britannia'' 10, 1979 (the closest English equivalent to the vowel in the first syllable is the ''ow'' in "bow-and-arrow"). The modern English pronunciation is .Boudicca. Dictionary.com. Dictionary.com Unabridged (v 1.1). Random House, Inc. http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/Boudicca (accessed: December 20, 2007).

Background

Tacitus and Dio agree that Boudica was of Royal family|royal descent. Dio says that she was "possessed of greater intelligence than often belongs to women", that she was tall, had long red hair down to her hips, a harsh voice and a piercing glare, and habitually wore a large golden necklace (perhaps a torc), a many-coloured tunic, and a thick cloak fastened by a brooch. Her husband, Prasutagus, was the king of Iceni, people who inhabited roughly what is now Norfolk. They initially were not part of the territory under direct Roman control, having voluntarily allied themselves to Rome following Claudius's Roman conquest of Britain|conquest of AD 43. They were jealous of their independence and had revolted in AD 47 when the then-Roman governors of Britain|governor, Publius Ostorius Scapula, threatened to disarm them.Tacitus, ''Annals'' 12:31-32 Prasutagus lived a long life of conspicuous wealth, and, hoping to preserve his line, made the Roman emperor co-heir to his kingdom along with his wife and two daughters. It was normal Roman practice to allow allied kingdoms their independence only for the lifetime of their client king, who would agree to leave his kingdom to Rome in his will: the provinces of BithyniaH. H. Scullard, ''From the Gracchi to Nero'', 1982, p. 90 and Galatia,John Morris, ''Londinium: London in the Roman Empire'', 1982, pp. 107-108 for example, were incorporated into the Empire in just this way. Roman law also allowed inheritance only through the male line. So when Prasutagus died his attempts to preserve his line were ignored and his kingdom was annexed as if it had been conquered. Lands and property were confiscated and nobles treated like slaves. According to Tacitus, Boudica was flogged and her daughters raped. Dio Cassius says that Roman financiers, including Seneca the Younger, chose this time to call in their loans. Tacitus does not mention this, but does single out the procurator, Catus Decianus, for criticism for his "avarice". Prasutagus, it seems, had lived well on borrowed Roman money, and on his death his subjects had become liable for the debt.

Boudica's uprising

In AD 60 or 61, while the current governor, Gaius Suetonius Paulinus, was leading a campaign against the island of Mona (modern Anglesey) in north Wales, which was a refuge for British rebels and a stronghold of the druids, the Iceni conspired with their neighbours the Trinovantes, amongst others, to revolt. Boudica was chosen as their leader. According to Tacitus, they drew inspiration from the example of Arminius, the prince of the Cherusci who had driven the Romans out of Germany in AD 9, and their own ancestors who had driven Julius Caesar from Britain.Tacitus, ''Agricola'' Wikisource:Agricola#15|15 Dio says that at the outset Boudica employed a form of divination, releasing a hare from the folds of her dress and interpreting the direction in which it ran, and invoked Andraste, a British goddess of Victoria (mythology)|victory. Perhaps it is significant that Boudica's own name means "victory" (see #Boudica's name|above). The rebels' first target was Camulodunum (Colchester), the former Trinovantian capital and now a Roman ''Colonia (Roman)|colonia''. The Roman veterans who had been settled there mistreated the locals, and a temple to the former emperor Claudius had been erected there at local expense, making the city a focus for resentment. The Roman inhabitants of the city sought reinforcements from the procurator, Catus Decianus, but he sent only two hundred Auxiliaries (Roman military)|auxiliary troops. Boudica's army fell on the poorly defended city and destroyed it, besieging the last defenders in the temple for two days before it fell. Archaeology shows the city was methodically demolished.Jason Burke, "Dig uncovers Boudicca's brutal streak", ''The Observer'' , 3 December 2000 The future governor Quintus Petillius Cerialis, then commanding the Legio IX Hispana|Legio IX ''Hispana'', attempted to relieve the city, but his forces were Massacre of the Ninth Legion|completely annihilated. His infantry was wiped out: only the commander and some of his cavalry escaped. Catus Decianus fled to Gaul. When news of the rebellion reached him, Suetonius hurried along Watling Street through hostile territory to History of London#Roman London|Londinium (London). Londinium was a relatively new town, founded after the conquest of 43 AD, but it had grown to be a thriving commercial centre with a population of travellers, traders, and probably, Roman officials. Suetonius considered giving battle there, but considering his lack of numbers and chastened by Petillius's defeat, decided to sacrifice the city to save the province. Londinium was abandoned to the rebels, who burnt it down, slaughtering anyone who had not fled with Suetonius. Archaeology shows a thick red layer of burnt debris covering coins and pottery dating before 60 AD within the bounds of the Roman city.George Patrick Welch, ''Britannia: The Roman Conquest & Occupation of Britain'', 1963, p. 107 Verulamium (St Albans) was next to be destroyed. In the three cities destroyed, between seventy and eighty thousand people are said to have been killed. Tacitus says the Britons had no interest in taking or selling prisoners, only in slaughter by gibbet, fire, or cross. Dio's account gives more prurient detail: that the noblest women were impaled on spikes and had their breasts cut off and sewn to their mouths, "to the accompaniment of sacrifices, banquets, and wanton behaviour" in sacred places, particularly the groves of Andraste.

Romans rally

Suetonius regrouped with the Legio XIV Gemina|XIV ''Gemina'', some ''vexillationes'' (detachments) of the Legio XX Valeria Victrix|XX ''Valeria Victrix'', and any available auxiliaries. The prefect of Legio II Augusta|Legio II ''Augusta'', Poenius Postumus, ignored the call, but nonetheless the governor was able to call on almost ten thousand men. He took a stand at an unidentified location, probably in the West Midlands (region)|West Midlands somewhere along the Roman road now known as Watling Street, in a defile (geography)|defile with a wood behind him. But his men were heavily outnumbered. Dio says that, even if they were lined up one deep, they would not have extended the length of Boudica's line: by now the rebel forces numbered 230,000. However, this number should be treated with scepticism: Dio's account is known only from a late epitome, and ancient sources commonly exaggerate enemy numbers. Boudica exhorted her troops from her chariot, her daughters beside her. Tacitus gives her a short speech in which she presents herself not as an aristocrat avenging her lost wealth, but as an ordinary person, avenging her lost freedom, her battered body, and the abused chastity of her daughters. Their cause was just, and the deities were on their side; the one legion that had dared to face them had been destroyed. She, a woman, was resolved to win or die; if the men wanted to live in slavery, that was their choice. However, the lack of maneuverability of the British forces, combined with lack of open-field tactics to command these numbers, put them at a disadvantage to the Romans, who were skilled at open combat due to their superior equipment and discipline, and the narrowness of the field meant that Boudica could only put forth as many troops as the Romans could at a given time. First, the Romans stood their ground and used volleys of ''pilum|pila'' (heavy javelins) to kill thousands of Britons (historic)|Britons who were rushing toward the Roman lines. The Roman soldiers, who had now used up their ''pila'', were then able to engage Boudica's second wave in the open. As the Romans advanced in a Flying wedge|wedge formation, the Britons attempted to flee, but were impeded by the presence of their own families, whom they had stationed in a ring of wagons at the edge of the battlefield, and were slaughtered. This is not the first instance of this tactic. The women of the Cimbri, in the Battle of Vercellae against Gaius Marius, were stationed in a line of wagons and acted as a last line of defence;Florus, ''Epitome of Roman History'' Wikisource:Epitome of Roman History/Book 1#38|1.38 Ariovistus of the Suebi is reported to have done the same thing in his battle against Julius Caesar.Julius Caesar, ''Commentarii de Bello Gallico'' Wikisource:Commentaries on the Gallic War/Book1#51|1.51 Tacitus reports that "according to one report almost eighty thousand Britons fell" compared with only four hundred Romans. According to Tacitus, Boudica poisoned herself; Dio says she fell sick and died, and was given a lavish burial. Postumus, on hearing of the Roman victory, fell on his sword. Catus Decianus, who had fled to Gaul, was replaced by Gaius Julius Alpinus Classicianus. Suetonius conducted punitive operations, but criticism by Classicianus led to an investigation headed by Nero's freedman Polyclitus (freedman)|Polyclitus. Fearing Suetonius' actions would provoke further rebellion, Nero replaced the governor with the more conciliatory Publius Petronius Turpilianus.Tacitus, ''Annals'' wikisource:The Annals (Tacitus)/Book 14#39|XIV.39 The historian Suetonius|Gaius Suetonius Tranquillus tells us the crisis had almost persuaded Nero to abandon Britain.Suetonius, ''Nero'' 18, 39-40

Location of her defeat

The location of Boudica's defeat is unknown. Most historians favour a site in the West Midlands, somewhere along the Roman road now known as Watling Street. Kevin K. Carroll suggests a site close to High Cross, Leicestershire|High Cross in Leicestershire, on the junction of Watling Street and the Fosse Way, which would have allowed the Legio II Augusta|Legio II ''Augusta'', based at Exeter, to rendezvous with the rest of Suetonius's forces, had they not failed to do so.Kevin K. Carroll, "The Date of Boudicca's Revolt", ''Britannia'' 10, 1979 Manduessedum (Mancetter), near the modern day town of Atherstone in Warwickshire, has also been suggested.Sheppard Frere, ''Britannia: A History of Roman Britain'', 1987, p. 73 More recently a new discovery of Roman artifacts in Kings Norton close to Birmingham military history|Metchley Camp has suggested another possibility.Is Boudicca buried in Birmingham?, BBC, 25 May 2006, retrieved 9 September 2006

Historical sources

Tacitus, the most important Roman historian of this period, took a particular interest in Roman Britain|Britain as Gnaeus Julius Agricola, his father-in-law and the subject of his first book, served there three times. Agricola was a military tribune under Suetonius Paulinus, which almost certainly gave Tacitus an eyewitness source for Boudica's revolt. Cassius Dio's account is only known from an epitome, and his sources are uncertain. He is generally agreed to have based his account on that of Tacitus, but he simplifies the sequence of events and adds details, such as the calling in of loans, that Tacitus does not mention. It is possible that Gildas, in his 6th century polemic ''De Excidio Britanniae'', alludes to Boudica in his typically oblique fashion as a "treacherous lioness", although his general lack of knowledge about the real history of the Roman conquest of Britain makes this far from certain.Gildas, Wikisource:The Ruin of Britain#6|''The Ruin of Britain'' 6; Fabio P. Barbieri, ''History of Britain, 407-597'', Book 1, Chapter 2, 2002 (retrieved 5 July 2005)

Cultural depictions

History and literature

By the Middle Ages Boudica was forgotten. She makes no appearance in Bede's work, the ''Historia Brittonum'', the ''Mabinogion'' or Geoffrey of Monmouth's ''History of the Kings of Britain''. But the rediscovery of the works of Tacitus during the Renaissance allowed Polydore Virgil to reintroduce her into British history as "Voadicea" in 1534.''Polydore Vergil's English History'' Book 2 (pp. 69-72). Raphael Holinshed also included her story in his ''Chronicles'' (1577), based on Tacitus and Dio,Raphael Holinshed, ''Chronicles'': History of England 4.9-13 and inspired William Shakespeare|Shakespeare's younger contemporaries Francis Beaumont and John Fletcher (playwright)|John Fletcher to write a play, ''Bonduca'', in 1610.Francis Beaumont and John Fletcher (playwright)|John Fletcher, ''Bonduca'' William Cowper wrote a popular poem, ''Boadicea, an ode'', in 1782.William Cowper, ''Boadicea, an ode'' It was in the Victorian era that Boudica's fame took on legendary proportions as Victoria of the United Kingdom|Queen Victoria was seen to be Boudica's "namesake". Victoria's Poet Laureate, Alfred, Lord Tennyson, wrote a poem, ''Boadicea'',Alfred, Lord Tennyson, ''Boadicea'' and several ships were named HMS Boadicea|after her. A great bronze statue of Boudica with her daughters in her war chariot (furnished with scythed chariot|scythes after the Persian Empire|Persian fashion) was commissioned by Prince Albert of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha|Prince Albert and executed by Thomas Thornycroft. It was completed in 1905 and stands next to Westminster Bridge and the Palace of Westminster|Houses of Parliament, with the following lines from Cowper's poem, referring to the British Empire:

Regions Caesar never knew Thy posterity shall sway.

Ironically, the great anti-imperialist rebel was now identified with the head of the British Empire, and her statue stood guard over the city she razed to the ground.Graham Webster, ''Boudica: The British Revolt against Rome AD 60'', 1978 In more recent times, Boudica has been the subject of numerous Documentary film|documentaries, including some by Discovery Channel, History International|History International Channel, and the BBC.

Fiction

Boudica has been the subject of two feature films, the 1928 film ''Boadicea (film)|Boadicea'', where she was portrayed by Phyllis Neilson-Terry, ''Boadicea'' (1928) and 2003's ''Boudica (film)|Boudica'' (''Warrior Queen'' in the USA), a UK television|TV film written by Andrew Davies (writer)|Andrew Davies and starring Alex Kingston as Boudica. ''Boudica'' (2003) A new film is planned for release in 2010 entitled ''Warrior'', written by Brian Klugman and Lee Sternthal, directed by Gavin O'Connor (American filmmaker)|Gavin O'Connor, and produced by Mel Gibson.''Boudicca'' (2010) at IMDb She has also been the subject of a 1978 British TV series, ''Warrior Queen'', starring Sian Phillips as Boudica. Jennifer Ward-Lealand portrayed Boudica in an episode of Xena - Warrior Princess entitled "The Deliverer" in 1997. Boudica's story is the subject of several novels, including books by Rosemary Sutcliff, Pauline Gedge, Manda Scott, Alan Gold (author)|Alan Gold, Diana L. Paxson, David Wishart, George Shipway, and J. F. Broxholme (a pseudonym of Duncan Kyle). One of the viewpoint characters of Ian Watson's novel "Oracle" is an eyewitness to her defeat. She has also appeared in several comic book series, including the ''Sláine (comics)|Sláine'', which featured two runs, entitled "Demon Killer" and "Queen of Witches" giving a free interpretation of Boudica's story. Other comic appearances include ''Witchblade'' and ''From Hell''. Additionally, in the alternate history novel "Ruled Britannia" by Harry Turtledove, Boudicca is the subject of a play written by William Shakespeare to incite the people of Britain to revolt against Spanish conquerors. Henry Purcell's last major work, composed in 1695, was music for play entitled "Bonduca, or the British Heroine" (Z. 574). Selections include "To Arms", "Britons, Strike Home" and "O lead me to some peaceful gloom". Boudica has also been the primary subject of songs by Irish singer/songwriter Enya, Dutch soprano Petra Berger, Scottish singer/songwriter Steve McDonald, English metal band Bal-Sagoth, Faith and the Muse and Dreams in the Witching House.She´s also been mentioned in The Libertines´ song The Good Old Days ex Prime Minister of New Zealand, Helen Clark has been called Boadicea http://www.nzherald.co.nz/business/news/article.cfm?c_id=3&objectid=10540015

Other cultural references

There have been scattered reports that the restless spirit of Boudica has been seen in the county of Lincolnshire. These reports, dating back to the mid-19th century, claim Boudica rides her chariot, heading for some unknown destination, and many a traveller and motorist have claimed to have seen her. Dan Asfar, ''Haunted Highways: Ghost Stories and Strange Tales'', 2003 There is also a long-lived urban myth that she is buried under Platform 10 of King's Cross railway station in London.Queen Boadicea ( - 61) - Find A Grave Memorial This originates from the village of Battle Bridge (previously on the station's site), which was said to be the site of her last battle, suicide and burial. This is now accepted as a fiction and a hoax, whose origins can be traced back to Lewis Spence's book 'Boadicea - Warrior Queen of the Britons (1937) (where it is given but unevidenced)Bob Trubshaw, "Boudica - the case for Atherstone and Kings Cross" from ''At the Edge'' or earlier."A Boudicca question", discussion on the Time Team forum at Channel 4 It is now thought that Battle Bridge was a corruption of 'Broad Ford Bridge'. Other such legends place her burial on Parliament Hill, Hampstead or in Suffolk. In 2003, an LTR retrotransposon from the genome of the human Schistosoma|blood fluke ''Schistosoma mansoni'' was named ''Boudica''.Copeland CS, Brindley PJ, Heyers O, Michael SF, Johnston DA, Williams DL, Ivens AC, Kalinna BH, "''Boudica'', a retrovirus-like long terminal repeat retrotransposon from the genome of the human blood fluke ''Schistosoma mansoni''". ''Journal of Virology'' 2003 Jun;77(11):6153-66; Copeland CS, Heyers O, Kalinna BH, Bachmair A, Stadler PF, Hofacker IL, Brindley PJ, "Structural and evolutionary analysis of the transcribed sequence of ''Boudicca'', a ''Schistosoma mansoni'' retrotransposon". ''Gene'' 2004;329:103-114. She appeared as a World Leader in ''Civilization II'' as Boadicea, and in ''Civilization IV'''s expansion ''Beyond the Sword'', Boudica is added as a leader of the Celtic Civilization, along with Brennus. In the BBC sitcom ''The Vicar of Dibley'' the title character is named Boadicea Geraldine Granger.http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vicar_of_dibley The Irish singer Enya uses her Latin name in the title of the instrumental song "Boadicea" on her 1992 album "The Celts (album)|The Celts".